3-42 Rad ar mosaics can be assembled from either Composite Reflectivity (see paragraph 3.3.5.2) o r Base Reflectivity (see paragraph 3.3.5.3), depending on the website or data provider. At this time, NWS national (see Figur e 3-9, NWS National Radar Mosaic Example, Which Utilizes NEXRAD Base Reflectivity) and regional (see Figure 3-10, NWS Regional Radar Mosaic Sector Example, Which Utilizes NEXRAD Base Reflectivity), and Al aska (see Figure 3-11, Alaska Radar Mosiac Example) radar mosaic sectors are assembled using only B ase Reflectivity data (0.5º radar beam angle with a 124 NM range) and are set up to display all echoes (precipitation and non-precipitation). Most commercial aviation weather providers use Composite Reflectivity for their mosaics and configure the display to eliminate most non-precipitation echoes. NEXRAD radar data data-linked to aircraft cockpit displays via FAA Flight Information Service-Broadcast (FIS-B) use the Composite Reflectivity data for their radar mosaics.
Figure 3-9. NWS National Radar Mosaic Example, Which Utilizes NEXRAD Base Reflectivity
3-43 Figure 3-10. NWS Regional Radar Mosaic Sector Example, Which Utilizes NEXRAD Base Reflectivity
F igure 3-11. Alaska Radar Mosaic Example Many areas of Alaska do not have radar coverage. These areas are shaded gray.
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3.3.5.2 C omposite Reflectivity.
Because the highest precipitation intensity can be at any altitude, the Composite Reflectivity product (see Figure 3-12, WSR-88D Weather Radar Composite Reflectivity, Single-Site Product Example) is needed. Composite Reflectivity is the maximum echo intensity (reflectivity) detected within a column of the atmosphere above a location. During its tilt sequence, the radar scans through all of the elevation slices to determine the highest decibel value in the vertical column (see Figure 3-13, Creation of a Composite Reflectivity, Single-Site Product), then displays that value on the product. When compared w ith Base Reflectivity, the Composite Reflectivity can reveal important storm structure features and intensity trends of storms (see Figure 3-14, Weather Radar 0.5º Base Reflectivity (left) versus Composite Reflectivity (rig ht) Comparison).
NEXRAD radar displays on airplane avionics use the Composite Reflectivity data for their radar mosaics.
Figure 3-12. WSR-88D Weather Radar Composite Reflectivity, Single-Site Product Example
3-45 Figure 3-13. Creation of a Composite Reflectivity, Single-Site Product
The Composite Reflectivity product displays the highest reflectivity of all elevation scans.
Figure 3-14. Weather Radar 0.5º Base Reflectivity (left) versus Composite Reflectivity (right) Comparison This Composite Reflectivity shows that in many locations the highest precipitation intensity occurs at an altitude higher than precipitation detected at the elevation of the base elevation angle.
3.3.5.3 Base Reflectivity.
Base Reflectivity product is a display of both the location and intensity of reflectivity data from the lowest elevation angle, or 0.5º above the horizon.
3-46 The Base Reflectivity product is one elevation scan, whereas Composite Reflectivity looks at all elevation scans. Base Reflectivity products are available several minutes sooner than Composite Reflectivity products.
Prec ipitation at any location may be heavier than depicted on the Base Reflectivity image because it is occurring above the lowest elevation angle.
Both a short-range (see Figure 3-15, WSR-88D Weather Radar Short-Range (124 NM) Base Reflectivity, Single Site Product Example) and long-range (see Figure 3-16, WSR-88D Weather Radar Long-Range (248 NM) Base Reflectivity, Single Site Product Example) image are available from the
0.5º Bas e Reflectivity product. The maximum range of the short-range, single-site radar Base Reflectivity product is 124 NM from the radar location.
Long-range, single-site, Base Reflectivity product’s range is 248 NM from the radar location.
When using a single-site radar, i.e., not using a radar mosaic, echoes farther than 124 NM (short-range) or 248 NM (long-range) from the radar site will not be displayed, even if precipitation may be occurring at these greater distances.
Figure 3-15. WSR-88D Weather Radar Short-Range (124 NM) Base Reflectivity, Single-Site Product Example
Figure 3-16. WSR-88D Weather Radar Long-Range (248 NM) Base Reflectivity, Single-Site Product Example DBZ Radar Image from National Weather Service: PAH 19:03 UTC 04/29/2005 + Kankakee Lf+ Fort Wayne 75 Lamoni • Heona + Logansport + Lima + Kirksville Champaign + Quincy Springfield Landian apolis + Terré Haute + Bloomington Columbia Cinton + Louisville evansvilles + Springfield wing Green Poplar Bluff, + Branson ashville Dyersburt + Crossville + Lawrenceburg OMemphis 2+ Chattanboga + Little Rock Forence « Huntsvie V + Pine Blufg *+ Oxford Tupelo + Rome Gadsden + El Dorado * Greenville Columbus + luscaloosa J + Bimingham Radar Image from National Weather Service: КРАН 19:03 UTC 04/29/2005
3.3.5.4 Radar Coded Message (RCM).
With the deployment of the WSR-88D (NEXRAD) radar network in the 1990s, the manual radar observations, known by the acronyms ROB, SD, and RAREP, was replaced by the RCM. The RCM is the encoded and transmitted report of radar features observed by a WSR-88D radar. The RCM is generated automatically and has no human input or oversight.
The actual RCM is highly detailed, complicated, and not intended for use by the pilot or operator in raw format. However, the RCM is used to generate certain radar charts or displays, such as "The Current RCM Radar Plot," available on https://www.aviationweather.gov (see Figure 3-17, Radar Coded Message (RCM) Display), as well as other weather service provider's websites.
The RCM display is updated every 30 minutes. The display is an image representation of the NEXRAD radar Composite Reflectivity overlaid with cloud and echo tops and centroid movement. The RCM display includes the maximum echo top for each radar's area of coverage. The other tops shown on the display are derived from the satellite images.
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3-48 The echo tops shown on the display can be erroneous in some cases. The algorithm computes echo tops (the altitude of echoes greater than or equal to 18 dBZ) within the range of the radar. This can lead to spurious values when precipitation is far from the site. Values greater than 50,000 ft (500 ft on the plot) can be disregarded, especially if their locations do not correspond to any precipitation.
Figure 3-17. Radar Coded Message (RCM) Display
The display is an image representation of the NEXRAD radar Composite Reflectivity overlaid with cloud and echo tops and centroid movement.
3.3.6 Precipitation.
3.3.6.1 Convective Precipitation.
Convective precipitation (see Figure 3-18, WSR-88D Weather Radar Convective Precipitation on the 0.5º Base Reflectivity Product Example) is disting uished by the following radar characteristics:
• Echoes tend to form as lines or cells,
• Reflectivity gradients are strong,
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• Precipitation intensities generally vary from moderate to extreme,
• Occasionally precipitation intensities can be light, and
• Echo patterns change rapidly when animating the image.
Numerous hazards are associated with Convective precipitation. They include:
turbulence, LLWS, strong and gusty surface winds, icing above the freezing level, hail, lightning, tornadoes, and localized instrument flight rules (IFR) conditions below the cloud base due to heavy precipitation.
Figure 3-18. WSR-88D Weather Radar Convective Precipitation on the 0.5º Base Reflectivity Product Example
3.3.6.2 Stra tiform Precipitation.
Stratiform precipitation (see Figure 3-19, WSR-88D Weather Radar Stratiform Precipitation on the 0.5º Base Reflectivity Product Example) has the fo llowing radar characteristics:
• Widespread in aerial coverage;
• Weak reflectivity gradients;
• Precipitation intensities are generally light or moderate (39 dBZ or less);
• Occasionally, precipitation intensities can be stronger; and
• Echo patterns change slowly when animating the image.
3-50 Figure 3-19. WSR-88D Weather Radar Stratiform Precipitation on the 0.5º Base Reflectivity Product Example
Hazards associated with stratiform precipitation include possible widespread icing above the freezing level, low ceilings, and reduced visibilities.
3.3.7 Limitations.
Limitations associated with Composite Reflectivity and Base Reflectivity include:
• The radar beam may overshoot or undershoot targets, and
• The image may be contaminated by:
o Beam blockage, o Ground clutter, o Anomalous Propagation (AP), o Ghosts, o Angels, and/or o Other non-meteorological phenomena.
3.3.7.1 Radar Beam Overshooting and Undershooting.
Radar beam overshooting may occur because the lowest radar beam (typically the 0.5 degree elevation) can be higher than the top of precipitation. This will most likely occur with stratiform precipitation and low-topped convection. For
3-51 example, at a distance of 124 NM from the radar, the 0.5º radar beam is at an altitude of approximately 18,000 ft; at 248 NM the beam height is approximately 54,000 ft. Any precipitation with tops below these altitudes and distances will not be displayed on a single-site radar image. Therefore, it is quite possible that precipitation may be occurring where none appears on the single-site radar image.
Radar overshooting occurs more often in the mountainous western United States where some radars are located on a mountain top (e.g., the WSR-88D near Cedar City, UT).
Radar undershooting occurs when precipitation occurs above Base Reflectivity beam, usually with high-cloud based precipitation near the radar site. This often occurs in the western United States during the summer months.
Undershooting may occur at and near the radar site even in Composite Reflectivity products when the precipitation is above the highest elevation angle. This region above the radar is known as the “cone of silence” (see Figure 3-20, Cone of Silence).
Figure 3-20. Cone of Silence
3.3.7.2 Beam Blockage.
Beam blockage (see Figure 3-21, WSR-88D Weather Radar Beam Blockage on Base Reflectivity Product E xample) occurs when the radar beam is blocked by terrain and is particularly predominant in mountainous terrain.
Beam blockage is most easily seen on the 0.5º Base Reflectivity images where it appears as a pie-shaped area (or areas) perpetually void of echoes.
When animating the imagery, the beam blockage area will remain clear of echoes even as precipitation and other targets pass through. In many cases, the beam blockage effect seen on a single-site radar can be minimized by viewing mosaic images.
Figure 3-21. WSR-88D Weather Radar Beam Blockage on Base Reflectivity Product Example shone Beam Blockage + A† Soda Springs Malad City + Prestor LOÿ Brigham City Ogden
3.3.7.3 Ground Clutter.
Ground clutter (see Figure 3-22, WSR-88D Weather Radar Ground Clutter Example) is radar echoes' returns from trees, buildings, or other objects on the ground. It appears as a roughly circular region of high reflectivity at ranges close to the radar. Ground clutter appears stationary when animating images and can mask precipitation located near the radar. Most ground clutter is automatically removed from WSR-88D imagery, so typically it is does not interfere with image interpretation.
Figure 3-22. WSR-88D Weather Radar Ground Clutter Example Radar Image from National Weather Service: KCLE 16:46 UTC 05/11/2005 + Alma + Saginaw rt Huron + London + Findlay Akron Youngstown + Mansfield Ground Clutter Pittsburgh + Columbus - Cambridge - wheeling Zanes ville + Moundsville® Dayton + New Lexington * Morgan town -Fairmont
• 16:46 UTC 05/11/2005 3-52
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3.3.7.4 Ghost.
A ghost (see Figure 3-23, WSR-88D Weather Radar Ghost Example) is a diffused echo in apparently clear air caused by a “cloud” of point targets, such as insects or by refraction returns of the radar beam in truly clear air.
The latter case commonly develops at sunset due to super-refraction during the warm season. The ghost develops as an area of low reflectivity echoes (typically less than 15 dBZ) near the radar site and quickly expands. When animating the imagery, the ghost echo shows little movement.
Figure 3-23. WSR-88D Weather Radar Ghost Example
3.3.7.5 Angels .
Angels are echoes caused by a physical phenomenon not discernible by the eye at the radar site. They are usually caused by bats, birds, or insects. Angels typically appear as a donut-shaped echo with low reflectivity values (see Figure 3-24, WSR-88D Weather Radar Angel Example). When animated, the echo expands and becomes more diffuse with time.
Angels typically only appear when the radar is in Clear Air Mode because of their weak reflectivity. Echoes caused by birds are typically detected in the morning, when they take flight for the day. Echoes caused by bats are typically detected in the evening, when they are departing from caves.