Appendix 1
d. Type-specific aerodynamics:
• Angle of attack (AOA) awareness including:
• Importance of AOA as it relates to airplane performance and wing stall angle.
• Effect of airplane configuration (e.g., flaps, gear, leading edge slats, speedbrakes, and thrust/power setting) on stall margins and stall characteristics.
• AOA relationship to various airplane systems, particularly warning systems (e.g., stall warning, stick shaker, stick pusher, etc.).
• General and airplane-specific AOA knowledge.
• Impact of environmental and system factors on AOA indications and their relationship to the stall AOA and various airplane warning systems (e.g., type-specific knowledge of the stall warning system).
• AOA indications, if presented to the pilot.
• Airplane-specific handling to use AOA-derived information to prevent or recover from an upset (including stall).
e. Mach effects including:
• Mach tuck and Mach buffet and the reason for them.
• Buffet-limited max altitude.
• Critical Mach number and aerodynamic forces acting on the wing at critical Mach.
• Control surface effectiveness at high speed.
Note: Training for AOA and Mach effects should only be accomplished to the extent of their applicability to the specific airplane.
Flight The FSTD training should be accomplished at both high altitudes (within 5,000 ft. of the service ceiling of the airplane), and low altitude (below 10,000 ft. above ground level (AGL)). Use of normal operational cruise altitudes for high-altitude training should be encouraged. To fully understand the concepts discussed in academic training, pilots should demonstrate the following:
• Recognize buffet (if applicable to airplane type), when encountered.
• Maneuvering at high altitudes at various speeds and automation levels applying the aerodynamic principles studied to prevent an upset.
• Awareness of the AOA from available data shown on the flight deck
(e.g., barber pole on speed tape, pitch-limit indicator, flight-path symbol relative to pitch attitude, etc.) and demonstrate the use of those data to prevent an upset or recover from one.
• Demonstrate knowledge of the type-specific systems that use AOA inputs with emphasis on warning systems and the limitations of those systems.
Appendix 1
• Speed controlled by elevator inputs or speed controlled by thrust, airplane energy state as it pertains to the type being flown, and demonstrate use of that knowledge to prevent or recover from an upset.
• Roll rate performance of the airplane at different speeds and different configurations and with flight spoilers retracted/extended if a difference exists.
• Pitch rate performance of the airplane at different speeds, different configurations, and with flaps retracted/extended.
• Demonstrate an aft center of gravity (CG) versus forward CG if flight qualities are significantly different.
Additional details regarding these areas can be found in the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid (AURTA) Revision 2, section 2.5. While the AURTA was designed for swept-wing airplanes with more than 100 seats, the general concepts are still applicable to most high-performance airplanes.
2. G Awareness Academic The effects of G’s, especially during airplane upsets. Emphasize that G-loading in transport category airplanes feels significantly more pronounced than in simulation. Airline pilots are normally uncomfortable (for the sake of passenger comfort and safety) with aggressively loading or unloading the G forces on a large passenger airplane. This inhibition must be overcome when faced with the necessity to quickly and sometimes aggressively maneuver the airplane. Most FFSs cannot replicate sustained load factors greater or less than 1G; therefore, the flight deck situation must be envisioned during flight different from 1G. The pilot may feel significantly heavier or lighter in the seat for moderate durations. It may be difficult to reach the rudder pedals.
Unsecured items may be flying around the flight deck. However, it should be emphasized that it should not normally be necessary to maneuver at less than 0G.
Flight Incorporated into Section 8, Upset Recovery Techniques, below.
3. Energy Management Academic • The interrelationship between kinetic energy (airspeed), potential energy (altitude), and chemical energy (power).
• How the airplane gets in a high- or low-energy state and the input options available to change the energy state to a stable and safe state.
• How external factors can change energy state and how to correct for them.
• What parameters to focus on to decide an appropriate response;
crosscheck with the other pilot to establish a shared understanding.
• What to monitor during an event and how the pilot monitoring (PM) should assist the pilot flying (PF) in the recovery using appropriate callouts and other verbal feedback.
Appendix 1 Flight This training should include integrated Crew Resource Management (CRM) training for developing crew knowledge and skills for energy management and techniques for reducing pilot error. To fully understand the concepts discussed in academic training, pilots should demonstrate the following:
• Acceleration between two speeds of which the airplane is capable at low altitude, medium, and high altitude (e.g., accelerating between 200 and 250 knots at low altitude and high altitude, which corresponds to Mach changes at high altitude) to demonstrate changes in available thrust.
• Acceleration performance from region of reversed command (back side of power curve) at low altitude and high altitude.
• The relationship between Maximum Cruise/Climb/Continuous Thrust and takeoff/go-around (TOGA) power settings at high altitude.
• Acceleration capabilities through descent versus power application.
• Wake vortex encounter behind a heavy airplane in takeoff and approach configuration.
4. Flightpath Management Academic Flightpath and energy management systems: Pilots should have a thorough understanding of the normal operation, failure modes and effects, and system integration effects of flightpath and energy management systems. Training on flightpath and energy management systems should include:
• Normal system operation and limitations.
• Indications and modes, including crosscheck and verification of mode use and understanding of how a specific mode will command the airplane; interoperability with other systems.
• Failure modes and effects.
• Common model-specific failures.
• Common errors to avoid and why they occur.
• The importance of ensuring correct inputs to the automated systems for flightpath management and the consequences of failing to do so.
• Understanding of type-specific characteristics to prevent inadvertent LOC-I events because of automation surprise (e.g., vertical speed (VS) or indicated airspeed (IAS) modes based on altitude).
• System review when conducting recurrent training.
• Knowledge of pitch attitudes, power settings, and airspeeds for common configurations and different phases of flight, as applicable to the airplane type.
Manual Flight Operations:
• Primary and alternate control strategies.
• Nonintuitive factors. For example, it may be counterintuitive to use greater unloading control forces when recovering from a high AOA, especially at low altitudes.
Appendix 1
• Additionally, for under-wing-mounted engines it may be necessary to reduce thrust in order to reduce the AOA due to the strong pitch up forces from added thrust.
• Specific aspects of the transition from automated to manual flight including transition from using a flight director to “raw data,” as applicable.
Flight Training should include abnormal operating conditions, reliance on primary flight instruments, manual flying skills, and edge-of-envelope operating conditions that could be encountered during routine operations. Examples include:
• Takeoff at high weight and aft/forward CG limits.
• Recognition and recovery from low-airspeed/energy condition in approach/landing configuration.
• Recognition and recovery from low-airspeed/energy condition near the service ceiling.
• Climb-to, steady state, and descent from service ceiling.
• Unplanned transition from automated to manual flight, including transition from using a flight director to “raw data,” as applicable.
5. Causes and Contributing Factors of Upsets Academic • Environmentally induced upsets, which could be caused by turbulence, mountain wave, wind shear, thunderstorms, microbursts, or airplane icing.
• Pilot-induced upsets which could be caused by misinterpretation or slow instrument crosscheck, improper adjustment of attitude and power, improper pilot input, inattention, distractions, spatial disorientation, pilot incapacitation, misunderstanding of autoflight modes or improper use of automated systems, transition from automated to manual modes due to system disconnect, and pilot-induced oscillation (PIO).
• Mechanically induced upsets that could be caused by flight instrument anomalies/failures, autoflight anomalies/failures, flight control malfunctions/failures, or other system anomalies.
• Common illusions (e.g., somatogravic illusion, the leans, Coriolis illusion, etc.) associated with LOC-I events. It should be explained why they occur and the importance of following procedure to avoid susceptibility to illusions.
• Situations resulting in an upset due to a lack of visual cues such as a sub-threshold roll (i.e., imperceptible roll rate, generally less than three degrees per second).
Flight Not applicable
Appendix 1
6. Review of Accidents and Incidents Relating to Airplane Upsets Academic Review of accidents and incidents related to transport category airplane upsets with focus on an understanding of the events leading to the upset, proper or improper decision-making actions that contributed to the upset, and, if applicable, recovery. Aviation Safety Action Program (ASAP), Flight Operational Quality Assurance (FOQA), and Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) data can also support this discussion.
Flight Not applicable
7. Recognition Academic a. Type-specific examples of instrument indications during developing and developed upset.
• Visual representations of the outside view and type-specific instrument indications of a variety of developing and developed upset conditions, with a focus on pitch, power, roll, and speed trend. Pilots should be provided context for each event in order for them to identify the divergence.
• Some normal situations should also be included so pilots can identify what is normal versus what is not.
• If applicable, discuss other cues, such as audio or buffet cues.
b. Pitch/Power/Roll/Yaw
• Pilots must have a fundamental understanding of instrumentation and flight dynamics in pitch, power, roll, and yaw in order to recognize the current state of the airplane and make the correct control inputs to arrest the divergence or recover from the upset.
• The use of the AURTA Revision 2, sections 2.5.5.5–2.5.5.9, is recommended for specific details for training pitch/power/roll/yaw.
c. Effective Scanning
• Effective instrument scanning techniques should be trained, as appropriate, to recognize normal states and divergence from normal flight parameters.
• To prevent flightpath divergences related to improper monitoring of airplane state, pilots should be trained during all phases of flight on what to monitor and when, crosschecking, and verification.
d. CRM techniques for working as a crew to return the airplane to normal flight and communicating airplane state between pilots, including CRM callouts to improve situational awareness.
• Evidence shows that the PM is often in a better position to recognize adverse trends in airplane state or flight parameters than the pilot flying (PF).
• The PM should be tasked with active monitoring of aircraft state and flight parameters and prompt callout of any divergence from planned and/or briefed flightpath.
Appendix 1 Flight The academic principles of recognition should be continuously reinforced by the instructor during flight training.
8. Upset Recovery Techniques Academic • Emphasize timely and appropriate intervention.
• Emphasize that recovery to a stabilized flightpath should be initiated as soon as a divergence from intended flightpath is recognized.
• Emphasize the need for the PF or PM to recognize a divergence as early as possible, and immediately ensure corrective action is taken to return the airplane to a stabilized flightpath rather than waiting until the airplane has developed into an established upset.
• The use of an intervention strategy employed by the PM that progresses from alerting the PF of a divergence from the intended flightpath, to suggesting a course of action (advocacy and assertion), and proceeds to directly intervening by taking the controls to prevent an accident or incident. In the event that a pilot intervenes by taking control of the airplane, they should announce the transfer of control.
• The attitude direction indicator (ADI), attitude display of the primary flight display (PFD), or Head-Up Display (HUD), as applicable, is the primary control instrument for recovery from an upset.
• Due to varying visibility conditions, pilots cannot depend on having adequate outside visual references.
• Air carriers and Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM) may already have policies on how to handle minor divergence from the desired flightpath for items such as bank, airspeed, heading, etc., including callouts. The intent of these procedures or CRM techniques is for the PM to draw attention to any divergence that exceeds parameters set by the company and for the PF to take corrective action.
• Control inputs to counter a developing upset must be smooth, positive, and proportional to the amount and rate of pitch, roll, or yaw experienced.
• Up to full-scale control deflections may be necessary; however, initiating recovery with arbitrary full-scale control deflections could aggravate the situation. An aircraft’s response to excessive or inappropriate control input that overshoots the desired response can startle or surprise the pilot and cause one upset to lead to another.
The use of the AURTA Revision 2, sections 2.6.3.2–2.6.3.5, is recommended for details to train the academic portion of the recovery techniques for the four elements below. For instructional purposes, the AURTA Revision 2 addresses several different airplane upset situations (listed below). This provides the basis for relating the aerodynamic information and techniques to specific situations.
• Nose-High/Wings-level recovery.
• Nose-Low/Wings-level recovery.
Appendix 1
• High Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques.
• Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques.
Flight The nose-high and nose-low maneuvers in Chapter 4, Tables 1 and 2, should be practiced first in maneuver-based training, followed by scenario-based training (SBT). For the recovery from the nose-high upset, pilots are instructed to push to achieve less than 1G.
Note: Rudder control is still effective at a high AOA, and special care must be taken in the use of rudder during upset prevention and recovery. It is important to guard against control reversals. To maintain structural integrity, avoid rapid full-scale reversal of control deflections.
During this training, the instructor should:
• Use the Instructor Operating Station (IOS) to track G-load and other flight parameters during recovery;
• Provide specific feedback if recovery was too aggressive,
i.e., structural or other flight limits were exceeded during recovery;
• Provide specific feedback if recovery was insufficiently positive,
i.e., recovery was delayed or impaired due to insufficient control inputs;
• Provide specific feedback if recovery control inputs were excessive, or cyclic with control reversals; and
• After the pilot uses the correct amount of force to recover, note that the absence of G-load sensing in the FSTD may lead to a tendency to undercontrol recovery in the actual aircraft when these loads are sensed.
Appendix 1
9. Specialized Flight Training Elements for Upset Prevention Flight Sections 121.424, 121.426, and 121.427 require initial, transition, conversion, upgrade, and recurrent training to include the extended envelope training in § 121.423. Each maneuver or procedure listed below is required by § 121.423, except steep turns, which are required by part 121 appendix E, and teaches a specific skill set to help pilots build their manual handling skills and prevent upsets.
• Manually controlled slow flight: The target speed for slow flight should be below the minimum drag speed for the configuration. Slow flight exposes the pilot to flight just above the stall speed and how to maneuver the airplane at this speed, in situations other than an approach, without stalling. The purpose is to reinforce the basic stall characteristics learned in academics and allow the pilot to obtain handling experience and motion sensations when operating the airplane at slow speeds in the impending regime in various airplane attitudes, configurations, bank angles, and altitudes, including high altitudes.
• Steep turns: Steep turns provide the pilot with some practical experience of the consequences of load factor and maneuvering the airplane at higher-than-normal bank angles.
• Manually controlled loss of reliable airspeed (See Appendix 2, Scenario 2): The training of an airspeed indication system malfunction is critical for a pilot’s understanding of type-specific failure modes.
Additionally, cascading failure of other dependent systems provides a training environment, which allows a pilot to practice manually handling an aircraft with varying degrees of automation and capabilities that may be present during upset. In many instances, the loss of reliable airspeed results in an aircraft which must be flown primarily by relying on pitch and power. Further, these maneuvers require an understanding of the aerodynamic qualities of large transport category aircraft.
• Manually controlled instrument departure and arrival: Modern aircraft are commonly operated using autoflight systems (e.g., autopilot or autothrottle/autothrust). Autoflight systems are useful tools and have improved safety and workload management, and thus enable more precise operations; however, continuous use of autoflight systems could lead to degradation of the pilot’s ability to quickly recover the aircraft from an undesired state.
Appendix 1
10. System Malfunctions Academic • Understanding of airplane systems and how system malfunctions can contribute to an upset.
• Air carriers should refer to OEM checklists and procedures, which cover system and component failures.
• Review additional information from the AURTA Revision 2, section 2.4.2.
Flight System malfunctions can contribute to an upset. FSTDs allow instructors to safely induce malfunctions that would not be possible in the airplane.
Failures/malfunctions related to systems, instruments, power, and automation should all be incorporated into training, whenever applicable. Inaccurate information, if possible, should also be part of the training program
(e.g., unreliable airspeed), so pilots learn to recognize the error, prevent an upset, and maintain control of the airplane.
11. Normal and Degraded Modes for Envelope Protected Airplanes Academic • Understanding of normal modes of envelope protection, as well as all possible degraded modes of envelope protection.
• Comprehensive information regarding envelope protection is available from the aircraft manufacturer.
• Air carriers must adequately train pilots on the varied effects of envelope protection during normal, abnormal, and emergency situations. For part 121 operations, the requirements are listed under § 121.419(a)(2)(v), 121.420, and 121.427; part 121 appendix E and appendix F; and § 121.913 for Advanced Qualification Programs (AQP).
• Consideration of the Flight Standardization Board Report (FSBR) is recommended. This report may contain additional training requirements, specific to aircraft type, not contained in the CFRs or manufacturer documentation.
Flight Demonstrate flight envelope protection in normal and degraded modes.
Highlight the differences in symbology, instrumentation, and flight characteristics, as appropriate.
Appendix 2 APPENDIX 2. SAMPLE TRAINING SCENARIOS AND MANEUVERS Three scenarios were constructed using the philosophies and concepts described in this advisory circular (AC). Training providers are encouraged to develop additional scenarios that fit their training needs. The examples should be easily tailored to any transport category airplane. The examples given are not intended to be limiting; they are provided as a framework for developing a training curriculum.
NOTE: The manufacturer’s procedures take precedence over the recommendations in this AC.
EXAMPLES OF SCENARIOS AND MANEUVERS FOR UPSET PREVENTION AND
RECOVERY TRAINING SCENARIO 1: NOSE-HIGH ATTITUDE IN AN AIRPLANE WITH
UNDER-WING-MOUNTED ENGINES INSTRUCTOR ROLE Implement scenarios that result in an unexpected nose-high attitude (40° or greater) with full power.
OBJECTIVE This scenario is ONLY for airplanes with under-wing-mounted engines. The pilot will recognize the nose-high attitude and immediately perform the upset recovery procedure. If a detectable nose-down pitch rate is not initially achievable, the pilot should demonstrate recovery by reducing the thrust to a point where a nose-down pitch rate is achieved.
EMPHASIS AREAS • Effect of thrust on pitch moment.
• Recognition and recovery.
• Crew coordination.
• Angle of attack (AOA) management, including available AOA indications.
• Aural and visual warnings (environment and airplane cueing).
• Surprise and startle.
• Situational awareness while returning to desired flightpath after the upset recovery, including such items as heading, altitude, other aircraft, and flight deck automation.
FSTD SETUP
CONSIDERATIONS In order to create potential onset conditions, consider use of the following:
• System malfunctions resulting in erroneous pitch attitude indications;
Appendix 2 SCENARIO 1: NOSE-HIGH ATTITUDE IN AN AIRPLANE WITH
UNDER-WING-MOUNTED ENGINES
• Other system malfunctions resulting in a nose-high attitude; and
• Realistic environmental threats destabilizing the flightpath.
SCENARIO ELEMENTS • Upon recognizing the first indication of an upset, perform the upset recovery procedure.
• The necessity for smooth, deliberate, and positive control inputs to avoid increasing load factors.
• Reducing thrust, if necessary, can reduce the upward pitch moment.
COMPLETION STANDARDS • Recognizes and confirms the situation.
• Initiates recovery by reducing thrust to approximately midrange until a detectable nose-down pitch rate is achieved.
• Verifies the autopilot and autothrottle/autothrust are disconnected.
• Proper recovery consists of up to full nose-down elevator and by using stabilizer trim, if required. A steady nose-down pitch rate should be achieved, and it should be noted that the airplane would be less than 1G and the associated characteristics of such.
• When approaching the horizon, the pilot checks airspeed, adjusts thrust, and establishes the appropriate pitch attitude and stabilizer trim setting for level flight.
• The maneuver is considered complete once a safe speed is achieved and the airplane stabilized.
• Satisfactory crew coordination must be demonstrated.
COMMON PILOT ERRORS • Fails to disengage the autopilot and autothrottle.
• Fails to reduce thrust sufficiently, if necessary, to obtain nose-down pitch.
• Reduces thrust excessively.
• Fails to use sufficient elevator authority.
• Fails to use stabilizer trim when necessary.
COMMON INSTRUCTOR ERRORS
• Fails to notice improper control inputs.
• If the FSTD training envelope was exceeded, fails to advise the pilot to prevent negative training.
Appendix 2 SCENARIO 2: LOSS OF RELIABLE AIRSPEED INSTRUCTOR ROLE Implement scenarios that result in erroneous airspeed indications.
OBJECTIVE The pilot will recognize the airspeed discrepancy, determine airspeed data is erroneous, and apply the appropriate non-normal procedure while maintaining airplane control using pitch and power targets.
EMPHASIS AREAS • Recognition.
• Crew coordination.
• AOA management including available AOA indications.
• Maintain awareness of and manage flightpath and energy.
• Aural and visual warnings (environment and airplane cueing).
• Completion of the appropriate non-normal checklist.
• Surprise and startle.
• Manual flying skills.
• Effects of altitude on control inputs.
FSTD SETUP
CONSIDERATIONS The scenario will be conducted at or near the maximum operating altitude in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). Use of flight simulation training device (FSTD) capabilities to induce erroneous airspeed indications may include:
• Full or partial pitot/static blockage or icing.
• Air data computer failures.
SCENARIO ELEMENTS • During cruise, one or two airspeed indicators will malfunction.
• The pilot recognizing the erroneous airspeed data indication will verbally announce the discrepancy.
• The pilot flying will maintain control of the airplane and call for the appropriate non-normal checklist.
• At the conclusion of the scenario, the instructor will discuss available airplane AOA indications.
COMPLETION STANDARDS • The pilot flying will manage pitch and power to avoid a stall.
• Satisfactory crew coordination must be demonstrated.
• Correctly identifies the erroneous airspeed data.
• Completes the appropriate non-normal checklist.