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• Upset recovery maneuvers;
• Recovery from bounced landing; and
• Instructor-guided hands-on experience of recovery from full stall and stick pusher activation.
h. Flight Simulation Training Device (FSTD). A full flight simulator (FFS) or a flight training device (FTD).
i. Flightpath Management. Active manipulation, using either onboard avionics systems or manual handling, to command the aircraft flight controls to direct the aircraft along a desired trajectory in the lateral and vertical planes.
j. Instructor Operating Station (IOS). The interface panel between the FSTD instructor and the FSTD.
k. Landing Configuration. Starts when the landing gear is down and a landing flap setting has been selected during an approach until executing a landing, go-around, or missed approach.
l. Loss of Control in Flight (LOC-I). A categorization of an accident or incident resulting from a deviation from the intended flightpath.
m. Maneuver-Based Training. Training that focuses on a single event or maneuver in isolation.
n. Prevention. Actions to avoid any divergence from a desired airplane state.
o. Scenario-Based Training (SBT). Training that incorporates maneuvers into real-world experiences to cultivate practical flying skills in an operational environment.
p. Startle. An uncontrollable, automatic muscle reflex, raised heart rate, blood pressure, etc., elicited by exposure to a sudden, intense event that violates a pilot’s expectations.
q. Surprise. An unexpected event that violates a pilot’s expectations and can affect the mental processes used to respond to the event.
r. Transfer of Training. The ability of a trainee to apply knowledge, skills, and behavior acquired in one learning environment (e.g., a classroom, an FSTD) to another environment
(e.g., flight). In this context, “negative transfer of training” refers to the inappropriate generalization of knowledge or skills learned in training to line operations.
s. Undesired Aircraft State. A position, velocity, or attitude of an aircraft that reduces or eliminates safety margins.
1-7. RELATED REGULATIONS. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) parts 61, 91 subpart K (part 91K), 121, 125, 135, and 142.
Par 1-8 Page 4
1-8. RELATED FAA GUIDANCE (current editions):
• Safety Alert for Operators (SAFO) 13002, Manual Flight Operations.
• Information for Operators (InFO) 10010, Enhanced Upset Recovery Training.
• Airline Transport Pilot and Type Rating for Airplane Airman Certification Standards (ACS).
• Commercial Pilot – Airplane ACS.
• FAA Order 8900.1, Volume 2, Air Operator and Air Agency Certification and Application Process.
• Order 8900.1, Volume 3, General Technical Administration.
• Order 8900.1, Volume 5, Airman Certification.
• AC 120-51, Crew Resource Management Training.
• AC 120-90, Line Operations Safety Audits.
• AC 120-109, Stall Prevention and Recovery Training.
• AC 120-114, Pilot Training and Checking (14 CFR Part 121 Subparts N and O, Including Appendices E and F).
• FAA Safety Brochure, Spatial Disorientation: Why You Shouldn’t Fly by the Seat of Your Pants.
1-9. RELATED REFERENCES:
• Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid (AURTA) Revision 2:
https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/pilots/training/AP_UpsetRecovery_Book.pdf.
• Defensive Flying for Pilots: An Introduction to Threat and Error Management, Ashleigh Merritt, Ph.D. and James Klinect, Ph.D. (The University of Texas Human Factors Research Project – The LOSA Collaborative):
https://skybrary.aero/articles/threat-and-error-management-tem.
• Culture, Threat, and Error: Assessing System Safety, Robert L. Helmreich, University of Texas Human Factors Research Project, The University of Texas at Austin:
https://webhome.auburn.edu/~johnsrd/4050/Slides/latent.pdf.
• The Effectiveness of Airline Pilot Training for Abnormal Events, Stephen M. Casner, et al., Human Factors, Vol. 55, No. 3, June 2013, pp. 477-485.
• CAST Safety Enhancement 196, Airplane State Awareness – Effective Upset Prevention and Recovery Training: https://skybrary.aero/articles/se196-airplane-stateawareness-effective-upset-prevention-and-recovery-training.
• Operational Use of Flight Path Management Systems. Final Report of the Performance-Based Operations Aviation Rulemaking Committee/Commercial Aviation Safety Team Flight Deck Automation Working Group, September 5, 2013.
• ICAO Doc 10011, Manual on Aeroplane Upset Prevention and Recovery Training, 2014.
1-10. AC FEEDBACK FORM. For your convenience, the AC Feedback Form is the last page of this AC. Note any deficiencies found, clarifications needed, or suggested improvements regarding the contents of this AC on the Feedback Form.
Par 2-1 Page 5 CHAPTER 2. UPSET PREVENTION AND RECOVERY TRAINING (UPRT)
PRINCIPLES
2-1. GENERAL. An effective UPRT curriculum provides pilots with the knowledge and skills to prevent an upset, or if not prevented, to recover from an upset. Training should focus on preventing upsets rather than waiting to recover from one. The focus on prevention is a significant shift from previous upset or unusual attitude training, which primarily focused on recovering from a fully developed upset. Prevention training prepares pilots to avoid incidents, while recovery training intends to avoid an accident if an upset occurs.
2-2. TRAINING PHILOSOPHY. While basic aerodynamics and unusual attitude1 training are required elements for a pilot’s private, commercial, and airline transport pilot (ATP) certifications, it is important to reinforce and expand upon this certification training throughout a pilot’s career. This advisory circular (AC) describes the academic and flight training components of a comprehensive UPRT curriculum, requirements for UPRT instructors, flight simulation training device (FSTD) requirements, upset recovery procedures, and sample UPRT scenarios.
1 This training is incorporated into “Upset Recovery Techniques” in Appendix 1, Section 8.
a. Traini ng Goal. A pilot who has successfully completed UPRT will demonstrate knowledge and skill in preventing, recognizing, and, if necessary, recovering from an upset.
b. Training Methodology. UPRT is to be conducted as train-to-proficiency (i.e., training will continue until completion criteria are met).
NOTE: UPRT is not to be evaluated in proficiency checks, line-oriented evaluation (LOE), or by other jeopardy events.
c. Completion Criteria for Prevention. Prevention is the primary goal of UPRT, including timely action to avoid progression toward a potential upset.
• When acting as either pilot flying (PF) or pilot monitoring (PM), actively scans the internal and external environment and identifies and alerts the crew to factors that may lead to divergence from the desired flightpath.
• When acting as PM, creates, communicates, and manages alternative courses of action that reduce the likelihood of an upset.
d. Completion Criteria for Recognition. Timely action to recognize divergence from the intended flightpath and interrupt progression toward a potential upset.
• When acting as PF, prompt recognition of divergence from intended flightpath or uncommanded changes to the aircraft flightpath.
• When acting as PM, active monitoring of aircraft state and flight parameters and prompt callout of divergence from planned or briefed flightpath.
• Take prompt action (if PF or through callouts if PM) to correct a divergence from the intended flightpath and interrupt progression toward a potential upset.
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e. Completion Criteria for Recovery. Timely action to recover from an upset in accordance with the air carrier’s procedures, or in the absence thereof, in accordance with recommendations provided in Chapter 4 of this AC.
• A PF will take action, or a PM will call out the need, for timely execution of recovery priorities: 1) manage the energy, 2) arrest flightpath divergence, 3) recover to stabilized flightpath.
• Apply (PF), or monitor (PM), appropriate control actions to recover the aircraft without exceeding aircraft limitations.
• When an upset is precipitated by stall, recover from the stall before initiating other recovery actions.
2-3. IMPORTANCE OF THE UPRT INSTRUCTOR. The key to effective UPRT is the instructor. The safety implications and consequences of applying poor instructional technique, or providing misleading information, are more significant in UPRT compared with some other areas of pilot training. Therefore, an essential component in the effective delivery of UPRT is a properly trained and qualified instructor who possesses sound academic and operational knowledge.
2-4. INSTRUCTOR REQUIREMENTS (§§ 121.412 and 121.414). UPRT instructors must meet the following requirements:
• Hold an ATP Certificate and airplane type rating2 in the airplane for which they are conducting training.
2 A second in command pilot type rating issued under part 61, § 61.55 does not meet this requirement.
• Successfully complete the certificate holder’s UPRT program as a student and the UPRT instructor training in paragraph 2-5 below.
• Be able to teach, assess, and debrief the elements included in the training programs they are conducting.
• Be trained and qualified to conduct training in the FSTD to be used for the training.
2-5. I NSTRUC TOR TRAINING. Instructor knowledge of the subject areas below ensures accurate UPRT and minimizes the risk of negative transfer of training. The focus of instructor training should be on the practical application of these principles and the evaluation of a pilot’s understanding of the airplane’s operating characteristics. Instructor training should include the following and if a regulation is cited, the training is required:
a. Limitations of the FSTD (§ 121.414).
(1) Instructors must complete training on the data and motion limitations for each specific FSTD used for UPRT with emphasis on areas that have the potential to introduce negative transfer of training. Training on the limitations of the specific FSTD will enable instructors to provide upset recovery training consistent with the capabilities and performance of the specific aircraft type. This comprehensive instructor training will not only increase instructor
Par 2-5 Page 7 standardization and the quality of upset recovery training, but it will also reduce the risk of negative training that could easily occur with an untrained instructor.
(2) Instructors should learn to brief and debrief pilots on these limitations.
(3) Negative transfer of training has previously occurred as a result of the instructor’s lack of knowledge of the limitations of the FSTD. FSTD instructors must be aware that valid training may be limited to the parameters to which the FSTD has been programmed and evaluated to conduct. Operating outside of these parameters may result in the FSTD responding differently than the airplane would to a pilot’s control inputs. Motion cueing information may not always accurately simulate the associated forces and rates that could be felt in an airplane.
(4) Instructors must have a clear understanding of the FSTD limitations that may influence UPRT, including:
• The FSTD’s acceptable training envelope;
• G loading awareness/accelerated stall—factors absent from the FSTD’s motion cueing that could be experienced in flight and the effect on airplane behavior and recovery considerations; and
• Significant deviations from the FSTD’s validation envelope could result in an inaccurate FSTD response. While minor excursions from the FSTD’s validation envelope may not necessarily invalidate the training, instructors should be aware that the airplane’s response in an actual upset condition may deviate from what is experienced in the FSTD. Particular upset scenarios should be selected and evaluated before training takes place to reduce the likelihood of significant excursions outside of the FSTD’s validation envelope.
(5) Refer to Appendix 3-D, Flight Simulator Information, of the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid (AURTA) Revision 2 for more information.
b. Instructor Operating Station (IOS) Use (§ 121.414). Instructors must complete training on the proper operation of the controls, systems, and environmental and fault panels for each specific FSTD used for UPRT. This includes the specific IOS indications and controls that will be used to provide training and feedback during UPRT events.
c. Minimum FSTD Equipment (§ 121.414). Instructors must complete training on the minimum FSTD equipment required by parts 60 and 121 for each UPRT event. Instructors must understand that UPRT must only be conducted if the minimum FSTD equipment is functional;
otherwise, negative transfer of training could occur.
d. Review of Loss of Control In-Flight (LOC-I) Events, Incidents, and Accidents.
Training and review of LOC-I events, incidents, and accidents increases knowledge and skill development to recognize and to recover from an airplane upset. A review of LOC-I events will provide pilots with a focus and a context for the consequences of allowing the airplane to develop into an upset.
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e. Energy Management.
(1) It is important that instructors not only understand energy management but also be able to apply it as a means of upset prevention. UPRT instructors should be trained on specific techniques and maneuvers to demonstrate and train energy management principles effectively.
(2) An improper understanding of airplane energy state has contributed to a pilot’s poor understanding of airplane control. This poor understanding influenced the previous improper training of stall recovery. It is therefore important that instructors understand how energy management is a factor in all phases of flight, as well as in UPRT.
f. Spatial Disorientation. Instructors should be trained in a variety of causes of disorientation, prevention strategies, recognition cues, and recovery from disorientation, because spatial disorientation training may not be effectively represented in an FSTD.
g. Distraction. UPRT instructors should have an awareness of how distractions can lead to an airplane upset and how to effectively use distractions in training. Appropriate use of distractions can also assist the instructor in creating a situation to induce startle. UPRT instructors should learn about different distractions that can affect a flightcrew, such as:
• Communication,
• Heads-down work,
• Responding to abnormal/unexpected events,
• Searching for traffic,
• Flight deck ergonomics,
• Flight deck noise level,
• English language proficiency (from both the pilots and air traffic control (ATC)),
• Airport infrastructure, and
• Flightcrew fatigue.
h. Recognition and Recovery Strategies. Instructors should be able to convey how to recognize upset conditions and to apply appropriate recovery strategies. Training should include specific examples, in both academic discussion and practical demonstration.
i. Recognition and Correction of Pilot Errors. Errors may occur in flight operations if the errors are not identified and corrected during training. Instructors should be aware of the consequences of failing to recognize and correct pilot errors. Instructors should be familiar with common pilot errors, be able to identify the root cause, and provide training to avoid errors and incorrect inputs that can create undesired aircraft states (such as over controlling for Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) Resolution Advisories).
j. Type-Specific Characteristics. Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM) have recognized that different airplanes have unique characteristics that may both assist in, or deter from, the recognition and recovery of an airplane upset. UPRT instructors should know specific unique characteristics regarding airplane handling and recognition, such as how the airplane responds while approaching stall buffet or the effects of envelope protection.
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k. OEM-Specific Recommendations. Evidence indicates that training programs using operating procedures from one airplane type may have a detrimental effect if carried over to a different airplane type. This can lead to an upset. Training should use airplane-specific OEM recommendations and air carrier procedures developed from OEM recommendations for prevention and recovery from an upset.
l. Operating Environment. Current training does not always take into consideration the different handling characteristics in all areas of the operating envelope. Instructors should be trained in how to demonstrate the effects of the operating environment, as well as how these will affect the airplane handling characteristics and potentially lead to an airplane upset. This should include how changes in the environmental conditions will affect the airplane. An example is showing how thrust available varies significantly with altitude by timing how long it takes to change speed by 25 knots during level flight at low and high altitude.
m. Startle or Surprise. Because upsets that occur in normal flight operations are unplanned and inadvertent, pilots may be startled or surprised, adversely impacting recognition or recovery. Instructors need to plan scenarios to balance potential for startle or surprise while applying sound judgment with respect to realism and fidelity, and respecting the capabilities and limitations of the FSTD. It is crucial for the instructor to adopt and foster a spirit of collaborative learning when inducing startle or surprise so as not to inappropriately attempt to trap a pilot or destroy confidence in the training session.
n. Benefits of Demonstration in an FSTD. Some elements of UPRT may be more assessable, trainable, and effective when FSTD instructors demonstrate them from a pilot seat.
o. Assessing Pilot Performance to Completion Standards. Instructors should be able to assess when an appropriate level of proficiency is achieved. Instructors should be trained on how to judge pilot performance on the UPRT events and determine whether the required learning objectives have been met.
2-6. INSTRUCTOR STANDARDIZATION.
a. Initial Standardization Validation. Following completion of UPRT instructor training, and before providing unsupervised instruction, instructors should complete an Instructor Standardization validation to ensure readiness to provide accurate UPRT, to include evaluation of:
• UPRT knowledge and skills applicable to the UPRT for which they are being standardized.
• Ability to teach, brief, assess, and debrief the elements included in the UPRT for which they are being standardized.
• FSTD instructor ability to effectively operate the device and all of its available debriefing capabilities.
• Effective recognition of pilot errors, identification of root cause, and adjustments to training to correct errors and achieve the required level of proficiency.
• Assess the achievement of an appropriate level of proficiency in accordance with the completion criteria.
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b. Continuing Standardization. Each air carrier should have a control system in place to ensure its instructors continuously deliver standardized UPRT. Instructors who do not follow the curriculum may provide pilots with negative training.
Par 3-1 Page 11 CHAPTER 3. TRAINING METHODOLOGY
3-1. GENERAL. The training methodology for UPRT should follow the building block approach of first introducing essential concepts and academic understanding before progressing to the practical application of those skills in a flight simulation training device (FSTD).
Similarly, familiarity with airplane characteristics and development of basic recovery skills through maneuver-based training should precede their application in scenario-based training.
This progressive approach will lead to a more complete appreciation of how to recognize a developing flightpath divergence, respond appropriately in situations of surprise or startle, and recover effectively when required. Air carriers should develop training curriculums that provide pilots with the knowledge and skills to prevent, recognize, and recover from unexpected flightpath divergences and upset events. These training curriculums should contain the elements and events described in Appendix 1.
3-2. COMPREHENSIVE AIR CARRIER UPRT PROGRAM.
a. General. The FAA strongly recommends incorporation of the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid (AURTA) Revision 2 into air carrier UPRT programs. The AURTA Revision 2 has extensive discussion and considerations for both the academic and flight training portion of an air carrier’s training program. The AURTA Revision 2 is available online at https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/pilots/training/AP_UpsetRecovery_Book.pdf.
b. Flight Standardization Board Reports (FSBR). When developing UPRT programs, air carriers should consult the FSBR, if available, for the specific airplane type. The Special Emphasis Areas, and any other recommendations pertaining to in-flight aircraft handling, should be reviewed.
c. Academic Knowledge. Academic instruction establishes the foundation from which situational awareness, insight, knowledge, and skills are developed, and therefore must be accomplished prior to training the associated flight events in an FSTD. To ensure sufficient retention, FSTD training should occur within a reasonable time after academic training.
Academic knowledge should proceed from the general to the specific.
d. FSTD Training. Section 121.423 requires extended envelope training, which consists of the following maneuvers to be conducted in a Level C or higher full flight simulator (FFS):
manually controlled slow flight, manually controlled loss of reliable airspeed, manually controlled instrument departure and arrival, and upset recovery maneuvers. Other flight training that is part of UPRT, but not required by regulation to be conducted in an FFS, may be conducted in another type of FSTD; however, the FSTD should have the level of fidelity required to meet the learning objective. Training providers are encouraged to use the highest level FFS available when developing their UPRT curriculums. The primary emphasis is to provide the pilot with the most realistic environment possible during UPRT. Motion in an FFS should be used when those cues influence recognition or recovery.
(1) FSTD flight training should follow a logical progression where pilots are introduced to the airplane’s capabilities within the operating limits prior to training at the edge of the normal flight envelope, or beyond. While exceeding the normal flight envelope in an FFS is possible, all
Par 3-2 Page 12 UPRT maneuvers contained in this AC can typically be conducted inside the FFS’s intended training envelope where the performance and handling qualities of the FFS are at their highest accuracy. Training that exceeds the airplane envelope or the aerodynamic modeling envelope could increase the risk of negative transfer of training. Significant sustained accelerations and rates are not possible in an FFS, and instructors should be able to explain to pilots how the actual aircraft behavior may differ. See Appendix 3 for detailed FSTD considerations.
(2) FSTD training should include both maneuver-based and scenario-based training. Air carriers are encouraged to consult with the airplane manufacturer during the development of the FSTD training.
(a) Maneuver-Based Training. This training focuses on task mastery. Maneuver based training should include prevention and recovery training with an emphasis on the development of required motor skills to satisfactorily accomplish upset recovery. Limited emphasis should be placed on decision-making skills during maneuver-based training.
(b) Scenario-Based Training (SBT). The goal of SBT is to develop perception and decision-making skills relating to upset prevention, recognition, and recovery, while providing the pilot with an opportunity to use the skills learned in maneuver-based training in a realistic scenario. SBT would normally be used after maneuver-based training, during the later stages of an initial, transition, conversion, or upgrade training curriculum, and during recurrent training.
1. Realistic Scenarios. UPRT scenarios should be realistic events that could be encountered in operational conditions. When possible, scenarios should include accident, incident, Aviation Safety Action Program (ASAP), Flight Operational Quality Assurance (FOQA), and/or Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) data to convey how threat situations may develop and how they should be managed. Sample SBT lesson plans are provided in Appendix 2.
2. Briefing. Pilots should not normally be briefed that they are receiving SBT.
The concept allows pilots to recognize and manage upset threats as they develop during normal operations.
3-3. KEY UPRT CONSIDERATIONS.
a. Awareness and Prevention. Training with an emphasis on awareness and prevention provides pilots with the skills to recognize conditions that increase the likelihood of an upset event if not effectively managed. Training must include the air carrier’s standard operating procedures (SOP) and Crew Resource Management (CRM) techniques for the most effective prevention and threat mitigation strategies. Desired goals for awareness and prevention training include the following:
(1) Recognition of operational and environmental conditions that increase the likelihood of an upset event occurring;
(2) Aeronautical decision-making skills to prevent upsets (e.g., effective analysis, awareness, resource management, mitigation strategies, and breaking the error chain through airmanship and sound judgment);
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(3) Early detection of flightpath divergences;
(4) Timely and appropriate intervention;
(5) The effects of autoflight including mode confusion, flight envelope protection in normal and degraded modes, and unexpected disconnects of the autopilot or autothrottle/autothrust;
(6) Recognition of when the flight condition has transitioned from the prevention phase into the recovery phase; and
(7) Effective verbal and nonverbal communication regarding the airplane state.
b. Manual Flight Operations Knowledge, Skills, and Utilization. Modern aircraft are commonly operated using autoflight systems (e.g., autopilot or autothrottle/autothrust) during most of a flight. Autoflight systems have improved safety, reduced workload, and enabled more precise operations; however, continuous use of autoflight systems could lead to degradation of the pilot’s manual handling skills and ability to recover the aircraft from an upset.
NOTE: Air carriers are encouraged to take an integrated approach by incorporating manual flight operations into both line operations and training (initial, transition, conversion, upgrade, requalification, and recurrent).
(1) Training. Several maneuvers are included in Appendix 1 specifically to develop and maintain a pilot’s manual flight operations knowledge and skills.
(2) Operations. Air carriers should develop policies that encourage manual flight operations when appropriate. Operational policies should be developed or reviewed to ensure there are appropriate opportunities for pilots to exercise manual flying skills, such as in non-Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) airspace and during low workload conditions. In addition, policies should be developed or reviewed to ensure that pilots understand when to use the automated systems, such as during high workload conditions or for airspace procedures that require precise operations. Augmented crew operations may also limit the ability of some pilots to obtain practice in manual flight operations. Airline operational policies should ensure that all pilots have the appropriate opportunities to exercise manual flight knowledge and skills in flight operations.
(3) Use of Autopilot and/or Autothrottle/Autothrust for Upset Recovery. Leaving the autopilot or autothrottle/autothrust connected may result in inadvertent changes or adjustments that may not be easily recognized or appropriate, especially during high workload situations.
c. Availability of Visual References. The CAST study of 18 accidents and incidents resulting from pilot loss of airplane state awareness determined that 17 accidents and incidents occurred when pilots did not have visual references available (i.e., instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) or night). In the past, unusual attitude training was commonly conducted in visual meteorological conditions, giving the pilot considerable advantage in determining the appropriate recovery. To develop a pilot’s ability to recover from an upset, FSTD maneuvers
Par 3-3 Page 14 training should be done in both visual and instrument conditions, as well as in day and night.
This allows pilots to practice recognition and recovery under all conditions in order to experience important physiological factors.
d. Pilot Monitoring. Evidence shows that in many loss of control in-flight (LOC-I) incidents and accidents the pilot(s) monitoring (PM) may have been more aware of the airplane state than the pilot flying (PF). Training should emphasize crew interaction (including augmented flightcrews) to vocalize a divergence from the intended flightpath. A progressive intervention strategy is initiated by communicating a flightpath deviation (alert), then suggesting a course of action (advocacy and assertion), and then directly intervening, if necessary, by taking the controls to prevent an incident or accident. A pilot taking control should announce the transfer of control.
e. Startle or Surprise. Startle or surprise has been a factor in LOC-I incidents and accidents as upsets that occur in normal operations are unplanned and inadvertent, adversely impacting recognition or recovery. Instructors should plan upset scenarios emphasizing those event conditions and variables likely to result in startle/surprise while minimizing potential for negative transfer of training. The potential for negative transfer of training can be minimized through applying sound judgment with respect to realism and fidelity, as well as respecting the capabilities and limitations of the FSTD. The following points should be considered:
• Many possible events should be available for use during training. Otherwise, pilots will anticipate the event and not be surprised.
• The events should be taught in a supportive learning environment without jeopardy.
Otherwise, incentives are introduced for pilots to share with other pilots what to expect.
• Even if incentives are not introduced, pilots should be discouraged from revealing information about the events to other pilots that have yet to experience them.
Divulging a surprise scenario removes the benefit of allowing a colleague to examine their thoughts and responses in critical situations that arise in training. As such, the strategic objective of inserting these scenarios in training should be emphasized for the benefit of all.
• Instructors will have to be inventive and introduce various ploys to achieve a startle or surprise response in simulation. Managing expectations in this way can help achieve responses while surprised even in simulation environments when the fear of harm does not exist.