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b. Aircraft dispatchers have functioned jointly with flight captains for years. They have been allowed, indeed required to observe cockpit operations from the cockpit jumpseat as part of their initial and recurrent qualification under part 121. Some carriers have included day trips to their aircraft dispatchers’ offices to provide the pilot insight into the other side of the joint function scheme. Those trips have commonly been part of the special training offered to first-time captains. Now, real-life aircraft dispatchers are increasingly being used in LOFT sessions. The training experience gained by the pilot and the dispatcher during LOFT is considered the logical extension of earlier training methods, providing interactivity where CRM principles are applied and discussed.
c. Maintenance personnel have also had access to the cockpit jumpseat under part 121. Training of first-time captains has often included day trips to a carrier’s operations control center where a pilot and a maintenance supervisor can meet face to face and discuss issues of mutual interest in a thrumming, real-life setting. Some carriers have included maintenance personnel in LOFT sessions. Dedicated CRM training courses for maintenance personnel have been operating since 1991.
d. Even broader cross-pollination of CRM concepts has been considered, using other groups such as passenger service agents, mid- and upper-level managers and special crisis teams like hijack and bomb-threat teams.
e. Cabin attendants are probably the most obvious of the groups other than pilots who may profit from CRM training. Joint CRM training for pilots and flight attendants has already been proposed and adopted. One fruitful activity in joint training has been that each group learns of the other group’s training in shared issues. The joint training has revealed inconsistencies between training for one group and training on the same topic for another group. Examples of shared issues include delays, the use of personal electronic devices in the cabin, and evacuation and ditching. When inconsistencies are identified between the contents of pilots’ manuals and flight attendants’ manuals, or between widelyheld ideas or attitudes in those two populations, those inconsistencies are brought out into the open and often resolved. Other specific topics for joint training have been proposed, including:
(1) Pre-flight briefings;
(2) Post incident/accident procedures;
(3) Sterile cockpit procedures;
(4) Notification procedures pre-takeoff and pre-landing;
(5) Procedures for turbulence and other weather;
(6) Security procedures;
(7) Passenger-handling procedures;
(8) In-flight medical problems;
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(9) Smoke/fire procedures;
(10) Passenger-related regulations such as those relating to smoking (121.571), exit row seating (121.585), and carry-on baggage (121.589).
(11) Authority of the pilot in command.
f. CRM principles are made more relevant for both pilots and flight attendants by treating them in a familiar job-related context. Furthermore, each group should benefit from concurrent training in CRM that is complemented by usable knowledge of the other’s job.
g. Communication and coordination problems between cockpit crewmembers and flight attendants continue to challenge air carriers and the FAA. Other measures with positive CRM training value for flightcrews are being considered, such as:
(1) Requiring cockpit observation flights for all new-hire flight attendants; and permitting cockpit observation flights for all other flight attendants;
(2) Including flight attendants as participants during LOFT;
(3) Scheduling month-long pairings of pilots and flight attendants; and
(4) Providing experienced flight crewmembers to teach new-hire flight attendant orientation classes.
17. SUMMARY. Effective Crew Resource Management begins in initial training; it is strengthened by recurrent practice and feedback; and it is sustained by continuing reinforcement that is part of the corporate culture and embedded in every stage of training.
/s/ Richard O. Gordon Acting Director, Flight Standards Service
Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1. CREW PERFORMANCE MARKER CLUSTERS Italicized Markers apply to Advanced Technology Flight Decks. These behavioral markers are provided to assist organizations in program and curriculum development and to serve as guidelines for feedback. They are not presented as a checklist for evaluating individual crewmembers.
1. COMMUNICATIONS PROCESSES AND DECISION BEHAVIOR CLUSTER.
a. Briefings. An effective briefing is interesting and thorough. It addresses coordination, planning, and problems. Although briefings are primarily a captain’s responsibility, other crewmembers may add significantly to planning and should be encouraged to do so.
Behavioral Markers.
(1) The briefing establishes an environment for open/interactive communications (for example, the captain calls for questions or comments, answers questions directly, listens with patience, does not interrupt or “talk over,” does not rush through the briefing, and makes eye contact as appropriate).
(2) The briefing is interactive and emphasizes the importance of questions, critique, and the offering of information.
(3) The briefing establishes a “team concept” (for example, the captain uses “we” language, encourages all to participate and to help with the flight).
(4) The briefing covers pertinent safety and operational issues.
(5) The briefing identifies potential problems such as weather, delays, and abnormal system operations.
(6) The briefing provides guidelines for crew actions; division of labor and crew workload is addressed.
(7) The briefing includes the cabin crew as part of the team.
(8) The briefing sets expectations for handling deviations from standard operating procedures.
(9) The briefing establishes guidelines for the operation of automated systems (for example, when systems will be disabled; which programming actions must be verbalized and acknowledged).
(10) The briefing specifies pilot flying and pilot not flying duties and responsibilities with regard to automated systems.
b. Inquiry/Advocacy/Assertion. These behaviors relate to crewmembers’ promoting the course of action that they feel is best, even when it involves conflict with others.
Behavioral Markers.
Appendix 1
(1) Crewmembers speak up and state their information with appropriate persistence until there is some clear resolution.
(2) “Challenge and response” environment is developed.
(3) Questions are encouraged and are answered openly and nondefensively.
(4) Crewmembers are encouraged to question the actions and decisions of others.
(5) Crewmembers seek help from others when necessary.
(6) Crewmembers question status and programming of automated systems to confirm situational awareness.
c. Crew Self-Critique Regarding Decisions and Actions. These behaviors relate to the effectiveness of a group and/or an individual crewmember in critique and debriefing. Areas covered should include the product, the process, and the people involved. Critique may occur during an activity, and/or after completing it.
Behavioral Markers.
(1) Critique occurs at appropriate times, which may be times of low or high workload.
(2) Critique deals with positive as well as negative aspects of crew performance.
(3) Critique involves the whole crew interactively.
(4) Critique makes a positive learning experience. Feedback is specific, objective, usable, and constructively given.
(5) Critique is accepted objectively and nondefensively.
d. Communications/Decisions. These behaviors relate to free and open communication. They reflect the extent to which crewmembers provide necessary information at the appropriate time (for example, initiating checklists and alerting others to developing problems). Active participation in the decisionmaking process is encouraged. Decisions are clearly communicated and acknowledged.
Questioning of actions and decisions is considered routine.
Behavioral Markers.
(1) Operational decisions are clearly stated to other crewmembers.
(2) Crewmembers acknowledge their understanding of decisions.
(3) “Bottom lines” for safety are established and communicated.
Appendix 1
(4) The “big picture” and the game plan are shared within the team, including flight attendants and others as appropriate.
(5) Crewmembers are encouraged to state their own ideas, opinions, and recommendations.
(6) Efforts are made to provide an atmosphere that invites open and free communications.
(7) Initial entries and changed entries to automated systems are verbalized and acknowledged.
2. TEAM BUILDING AND MAINTENANCE CLUSTER.
a. Leadership Followership/Concern for Tasks. These behaviors relate to appropriate leadership and followership. They reflect the extent to which the crew is concerned with the effective accomplishment of tasks.
Behavioral Markers.
(1) All available resources are used to accomplish the job at hand.
(2) Flight deck activities are coordinated to establish an acceptable balance between respect for authority and the appropriate practice of assertiveness.
(3) Actions are decisive when the situation requires.
(4) A desire to achieve the most effective operation possible is clearly demonstrated.
(5) The need to adhere to standard operating practices is recognized.
(6) Group climate appropriate to the operational situation is continually monitored and adjusted (for example, social conversation may occur during low workload, but not high).
(7) Effects of stress and fatigue on performance are recognized.
(8) Time available for the task is well managed.
(9) Demands on resources posed by operation of automated systems are recognized and managed.
(10) When programming demands could reduce situational awareness or create work overloads, levels of automation are reduced appropriately.
b. Interpersonal Relationships/Group Climate. These behaviors relate to the quality of interpersonal relationships and the pervasive climate of the flight deck.
Behavioral Markers.
Appendix 1
(1) Crewmembers remain calm under stressful conditions.
(2) Crewmembers show sensitivity and ability to adapt to the personalities of others.
(3) Crewmembers recognize symptoms of psychological stress and fatigue in self and in others (for example, recognizes when he/she is experiencing “tunnel vision” and seeks help from the team; or notes when a crewmember is not communicating and draws him/her back into the team).
(4) “Tone” in the cockpit is friendly, relaxed, and supportive.
(5) During times of low communication, crewmembers check in with others to see how they are doing.
3. WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT AND SITUATIONAL AWARENESS CLUSTER.
a. Preparation/Planning/Vigilance. These behaviors relate to crews’ anticipating contingencies and the various actions that may be required. Excellent crews are always “ahead of the curve” and generally seem relaxed. They devote appropriate attention to required tasks and respond without undue delay to new developments. (They may engage in casual social conversation during periods of low workload and not necessarily diminish their vigilance.)
Behavioral Markers.
(1) Demonstrating and expressing situational awareness; for example, the “model” of what is happening is shared within the crew.
(2) Active monitoring of all instruments and communications and sharing relevant information with the rest of the crew.
(3) Monitoring weather and traffic and sharing relevant information with the rest of the crew.
(4) Avoiding “tunnel vision” caused by stress; for example, stating or asking for the “big picture.”
(5) Being aware of factors such as stress that can degrade vigilance and watching for performance degradation in other crewmembers.
(6) Staying “ahead of the curve” in preparing for planned situations or contingencies.
(7) Ensuring that cockpit and cabin crewmembers are aware of plans.
(8) Including all appropriate crewmembers in the planning process.
Appendix 1 Page 5 (and 6)
(9) Allowing enough time before maneuvers for programming of the flight management computer.
(10) Ensuring that all crewmembers are aware of initial entries and changed entries in the flight management system.
b. Workload Distributed/Distractions Avoided. These behaviors relate to time and workload management. They reflect how well the crew manages to prioritize tasks, share the workload, and avoid being distracted from essential activities.
Behavioral Markers.
(1) Crewmembers speak up when they recognize work overloads in themselves or in others.
(2) Tasks are distributed in ways that maximize efficiency.
(3) Workload distribution is clearly communicated and acknowledged.
(4) Nonoperational factors such as social interaction are not allowed to interfere with duties.
(5) Task priorities are clearly communicated.
(6) Secondary operational tasks (for example, dealing with passenger needs and communications with the company) are prioritized so as to allow sufficient resources for primary flight duties.
(7) Potential distractions posed by automated systems are anticipated, and appropriate preventive action is taken, including reducing or disengaging automated features as appropriate.
Appendix 2 Page 1 (and 2) APPENDIX 2. LOFT DEBRIEFING PERFORMANCE INDICATORS The effective Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) facilitator leads the flightcrew through a selfcritique of their own behavior and of their crew performance during the simulation. The debriefing and crew analysis include both technical and CRM discussion topics. Positive points of crew performance are discussed, as well as those needing improvement. At the conclusion of the session, key learning points are summarized covering all participants, including the instructor. A strong sense of training accomplishment and learning is taken away from the session.
1. The following performance markers may be used to evaluate the LOFT facilitator’s performance in the debrief/critique phase of LOFT.
a. Actively states the debriefing and critique agenda and solicits topics from the crew on items that they would like to cover; sets time limits.
b. Asks the crew for their appraisal of the mission overall.
c. States his/her own perceptions of the LOFT while guarding against making the crew defensive.
Comments are as objective as possible and focus on performance.
d. Shows appropriate incidents using videotape of the LOFT session, including examples of technical and CRM performance, and selects tape segments for discussion illustrating behaviors that feature the crew performance markers.
e. Effectively blends technical and CRM feedback in the debriefing; does not preach to the crew, but does not omit items worthy of crew discussion.
f. Is patient, and is constructive in probing into key areas where improvement is needed.
g. Ensures that all crewmembers participate in the discussion, and effectively draws out quiet or hostile crewmembers.
h. Provides a clear summary of key learning points.
i. Asks the crew for specific feedback on his/her performance.
j. Is effective in both technical and CRM debriefing.
Appendix 3 APPENDIX 3. APPROPRIATE CRM TRAINING TOPICS --
1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION.
a. Findings coming from accident investigations have consistently pointed to the fact that human errors contribute to most aviation accidents.
b. Research findings suggest that CRM training can result in significant improvements in flightcrew performance. CRM training is seen as an effective approach to reducing human errors and increasing aviation safety.
c. Aviation safety information is readily available through the World Wide Web. Many websites contain valuable source materials and reference materials that may be helpful in developing CRM training. Websites commonly link to other websites containing related material. Aviation related websites maintained by U.S. Government agencies include the following:
(1) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), http://www.nasa.gov.
(2) National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), http://www.ntsb.gov.
(3) Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), http://www.faa.gov.
2. TRAINING TOPICS, PRINCIPLES, AND TECHNIQUES. It is recommended that CRM training include the curriculum topics described in paragraph 12 of the advisory circular (AC) and the following topics, principles, and techniques:
a. Theory and practice in using communication, decisionmaking, and team building techniques and skills.
b. Theory and practice in using proper supervision techniques, i.e., captains working with first officers.
c. Theory and practice in selecting and using interventions needed to correct flying errors made by either pilot, especially during critical phases of flight. These interventions may include, but not be limited to, communication, assertion, decisionmaking, risk assessment, and situational awareness skills.
d. During Line Operational Simulation training, information, and practice of nonflying pilot functions, i.e., monitoring and challenging pilot functions, and monitoring and challenging errors made by other crewmembers for flight engineers, first officers, and captains. Training will alert flightcrews of hazards caused by tactical decision errors which are actually errors of omission. Practice in monitoring and challenging errors, especially during taxi operations, should be included. These skills are important to minimize procedural errors that may occur as a result of inadequately performed checklists.
e. Training for check airmen in methods which can be used to enhance the monitoring and challenging functions of both captains and first officers. The check airmen training should include the
Appendix 3 message that appropriate questioning among pilots is a desirable CRM behavior and part of the corporate safety culture; further, that such questioning is encouraged, and that there will be no negative repercussions for appropriate questioning of one pilot’s decision or action by another pilot.
f. Training for new first officers in performing the nonflying pilot role to establish a positive attitude toward monitoring and challenging errors made by the flying pilot. Training should stress that appropriate questioning is encouraged as a desirable CRM behavior, and that there will be no negative repercussions for appropriate questioning of one pilot’s decision or action by another pilot.
g. Training for captains in giving and receiving challenges of errors. Training should stress that appropriate questioning is encouraged as a desirable CRM behavior, and that there will be no negative repercussions for appropriate questioning of one pilot’s decision or action by another pilot.
h. Factual information about the detrimental effects of fatigue and strategies for avoiding and countering its effects.
i. Training for crewmembers which identifies conditions in which additional vigilance is required, such as holding in icing or near convective activity. Training should emphasize the need for maximum situational awareness and the appropriateness of sterile cockpit discipline, regardless of altitude.
j. Training for crewmembers in appropriate responses when passengers intimidate, abuse, or interfere with crewmember performance of safety duties. Training should address crew coordination and actions, which might defuse the situation. See AC 120-65, Interference with Crewmembers in the Performance of Their Duties, dated October 18, 1996. Training should include specific communication topics, such as conflict resolution.
k. Line-oriented flight training (LOFT) or special purpose operational training (SPOT) for cockpit crewmembers, which addresses appropriate responses to the effects of pitot-static system anomalies, such as a blocked pitot tube. Emphasis should be on situational awareness, inquiry/advocacy/ assertion, and crew coordination, when flight instruments act abnormally.
l. LOFT or SPOT for cockpit crewmembers that contain a controlled flight into terrain scenario.
Emphasis should be on prevention through effective communication and decision behavior. The importance of immediate, decisive, and correct response to a ground proximity warning should also be addressed.
m. Training for pilots in recognizing cues that indicate lack or loss of situational awareness in themselves and in others, and training in countermeasures to restore that awareness. Training should emphasize the importance of recognizing each pilot’s relative experience level, experience in specific duty positions, preparation level, planning level, normal communication style and level, overload state, and fatigue state. Pilots should assess these characteristics actively and continuously, in their fellow crewmembers and in themselves. Training should also emphasize the importance that improper procedures, adverse weather, and abnormal or malfunctioning equipment may have in reducing