Par 9-2 Page 100 may never have been previously exposed in training or in flight operations. It is important, therefore, that training activities seek to fully instill these skills in crews, in order to provide a basis for generalization to a potentially wide variety of situations. Figure 9-1 contains samples of some of these phase-of-flight independent CRM skills.
9-3. CRM/AQP TASK LIST. The AQP task list reflects the air carrier’s definition of the flightcrew’s job, including the role that CRM is expected to play in the performance of that job.
This job definition specifies the task activities, the knowledge, and the skills that must be trained to achieve and maintain pilot and other crewmember proficiency. Because of the fundamental role played by the task list, it should provide a comprehensive specification of the various task activities that constitute the job, and the knowledge and skills required in performing those task activities, both technical and CRM. In terms of the task list, this means that there are CRM task activities just as there are technical task activities. All of the technical and CRM task activities that must be performed to support these high-level task activities can now be identified. The high-level task activities, which also act as objectives, serve as a type of template that will overlay the specific procedures for handling each condition. High-level CRM task activities act as the framework within which technical activities are positioned to support management objectives.
9-4. CRM KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS. A CRM skill represents the ability of a person to apply specific CRM knowledge across a broad range of flight situations. In AQP, these CRM skills are combined to develop proficiency objectives. Once the carrier has identified the set of task activities appropriate for defining the flightcrew’s job (from the task list), these activities then provide the framework for identifying the CRM knowledge and skills that a pilot or crew must possess in order to effectively perform each task activity. Two approaches are commonly used to identify CRM knowledge and skills:
a. Top-Down. This approach uses the CRM categories chosen by the carrier, or presented in the CRM advisory circular (AC), to identify the set of CRM knowledge and skills. The resulting knowledge and skills can then be attached to those task activities whose performance they support.
b. Bottom-Up. This approach identifies CRM knowledge and skills by analyzing each individual task activity. The task activity’s structure determines the knowledge and skill requirements. This approach has the advantage that it defines an inherent link between the task activity and its knowledge and skills.
9-5. CRM AND PROFICIENCY OBJECTIVES. Once the task list has been completed, the proficiency objectives can be identified for that job. Two types of proficiency objectives may be used: ground training enabling objectives, which reflect the subject matter a flightcrew must know; and flight training terminal, supporting, and enabling objectives, which reflect the activities a flightcrew must be able to do. Appropriate integration of CRM into both ground and flight proficiency objectives ensures that the range of CRM issues important to the carrier will be addressed both in training and in evaluation by means of the performance standards included in the proficiency objectives.
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9-6. TRAINING EVENTS. The complete set of proficiency objectives defines the end result of training: the task activities the crew must be able to perform, the set of conditions under which they must be able to perform them, the performance standards that must be met, and the evaluation strategy that will be used to evaluate proficiency. They do not, however, describe the specific training situations and activities that will be used to achieve this end result, especially in terms of flight training. One means for specifying the set of flight training situations to be included in a curriculum is by means of events. The suggestion that flight training and testing activities should be developed around a set of events was formalized in 1994 by an industry group tasked to recommend a systematic approach for developing Line Operational Simulation (LOS) scenarios under AQP. The event set methodology has achieved wide acceptance because of its analytical approach to scenario design and its reinforcement of the use of realistic line conditions that enable crews to practice the full range of flight-management skills. The effectiveness of the event set methodology for integrating technical and CRM training objectives suggests that an event orientation throughout the curriculum, rather than just in Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) or Line Operational Evaluation (LOE), could offer important advantages.
9-7. EVENT SETS. The primary unit of both LOS design and CRM assessment is the event set.
The event set is made up of one or more events, including an event trigger, distracters, and supporting events. The event trigger is the condition or conditions under which the event is fully activated. The distracters are conditions inserted within the event set time frame that are designed to divert the crew’s attention from other events that are occurring or are about to occur.
Finally, supporting events are other events taking place within the event set designed to further CRM and technical training objectives. In LOS scenario design, the CRM and technical training objectives should be integrated into the event sets. This event set framework allows the design team to present the appropriate degree of realism in the LOS. Instead of focusing on a specific technical issue, the event set integrates the entire complex line environment (e.g., terrain, air traffic control (ATC), weather issues, etc.) to facilitate and maximize the crew’s performance in response to specified CRM and technical issues. The event set tends to follow the phase of flight and may extend beyond a single phase. This event set framework provides a logical breakdown for terrain, ATC, and weather issues as they interact with LOS events. With the LOS scenario now defined by event sets, scenario validation is performed at the event set level rather than limiting validation to the overall LOS. A sample event-set development worksheet is shown in Figure 9-2.
9-8. SOURCE. The carrier’s safety information system (incident reports, Aviation Safety Action Program (ASAP) reports, Flight Operational Quality Assurance (FOQA) data, line check data, etc.) is an important source for events and event sets. The conditions that encouraged the occurrence of an incident can be replicated in flight training or discussed in ground training. The purpose is to educate pilots about the types of conditions that can increase the likelihood of an error, to present strategies for avoiding these errors, and techniques for recovering from them, should they occur.
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9-9. CURRICULUM DESIGN. Curriculum design is the final product of the AQP analyses performed to this point: what is the job, what is proficiency on the job and how is it measured, and what training opportunities should be provided to achieve proficiency. The curriculum layout reflects the products of these analyses. Much of the work involved in designing a curriculum has been accomplished through the preparation of the task list, proficiency objectives, and events. If objectives and events have been developed, the design of the curriculum is largely complete, except for choosing the specific locations within the syllabus for the individual elements.
9-10. INDOCTRINATION CURRICULUM. CRM training is likely to be integrated into indoctrination training in two ways. A separate CRM portion might be appropriate to address the philosophical issues pertaining to captain’s and first officer’s authority, and corporate expectations concerning professionalism and individual responsibility. CRM is also likely to play a supporting role in other portions, such as weather. The decision processes involved in managing severe weather conditions provides an appropriate flight management context for addressing operational issues pertaining to weather.
9-11. QUALIFICATION CURRICULUM. Qualification training will likely use a different set of training topics. These topics could reflect the transition from knowledge acquisition to skill acquisition and, finally, to skill application. If so, the topics will reflect the following learning stages:
a. Knowledge. This includes basic awareness training concerning the nature of the skills, their value, strategies for using them, and ways to assess the effectiveness of skill use. Presenting the different roles that could be played by each crewmember sets the stage for later events where the crew must actually assume the appropriate roles for that situation.
b. Procedures. This training includes the proceduralized aspects of CRM.
c. Maneuvers. This training can extend beyond simply practicing individual maneuvers so as to encompass situation assessment, planning, workload distribution, and other critical CRM skills.
d. Flight Management. This training requires the strategic use of multiple skills adapted to the requirements of the situation and the accurate assessment of skill effectiveness in managing the situation. Effectively accomplishing such training requires a systematic approach to the development of scenario events designed to elicit complex crew skills.
9-12. CONTINUING QUALIFICATION CURRICULUM. This curriculum has two goals: to evaluate pilot and crew proficiency, and to provide supplemental training. Because of the severe time constraints imposed on this curriculum, only “snapshot” samples of pilot and crew performance are possible. If a flight-management framework has been used to prepare the task list and proficiency objectives, the performance samples could use an event-based approach that gauges pilot and crew performance for procedures, maneuvers, and flight management.
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9-13. LINE OPERATIONS AND PROCEDURALIZED CRM. Developing and teaching specific observable actions that would be required in the execution of specific activities at designated points in normal flight operations, as well as during abnormal or emergency conditions, can enhance the crew’s ability to communicate effectively, plan, and manage their workload, and solve problems during flight operations. A procedural approach may raise key aspects of CRM to the level of standard operating procedure (SOP), which increases CRM’s operational significance and provides crews with a standard form of CRM. CRM procedures may be embedded in a range of crew activities through the different phases of flight, reducing distractions to the pilot flying (PF) in both normal and abnormal situations. Also, providing structure to briefings with a checklist format can enhance the crew’s performance and improve the transfer of critical information.
SECTION 3. EVALUATING CRM
9-14. OVERVIEW. The training developed for AQP reflects the corporate philosophy as to how the job is to be performed, including the identification of observable behaviors that serve as the basis for evaluation. The use of a flight management philosophy during the development of training curricula and during the actual training supports an outcome-oriented assessment of skill use. Effective task activity performance is defined within the context of achieving predefined flight objectives. This approach supports the definition of objective standards that can serve as the basis for evaluation, and provides a consistent foundation on which to evaluate both CRM and technical skills.
9-15. OBSERVABLE BEHAVIORS. Observable behavior is a specific action employing a CRM skill in a given situation. Evaluation of individual pilot and crew CRM proficiency is possible through the inclusion of observable behaviors in the evaluation criteria that reflect performance on CRM-related task activities. These observable behaviors are defined for both the proficiency objectives and the events. Evaluation of CRM skills is possible if the event sets used in the evaluation process address these skills and incorporate appropriate observable behaviors in the performance standards.
Par 9-15 Page 104 FIGURE 9-1. SAMPLE CRM SKILLS Exercise Captain’s Authority or Responsibility Distribute workload and prioritize between primary and distracting duties.
Communicate plans and decisions to the crew.
Enforce standardization, policies, and procedure.
Set expectations for maintaining vigilance and avoiding complacency.
Respond to any safety-related concern raised by any crewmember.
Develop and enhance the aviation skill and knowledge of junior crewmembers.
Review operational irregularities and establish bottom lines.
Communicate intentions, “bottom lines,” and decisions to all crewmembers.
Fulfill First Officer or Flight Engineer Responsibility Cross-check and back the captain up. This requires maintaining vigilance and flying proficiency. It also includes effective monitoring of the situation.
Report to the captain any safety-related concern and request a plan or decision if none is articulated.
Support decisions articulated by the captain within the limits of safety, legality, and procedure.
Develop your proficiency and take the best from each captain you work with.
Maintain Situational Awareness Prepare, plan and maintain vigilance—be prepared for what you can reasonably expect.
Carry out actions or decisions based on priorities and crew workload established by the captain.
Identify systemic traps.
Be aware of the limits of human performance and the nature of human error.
Establish Effective Communications Conduct or contribute to briefings—keep your head in the game and work to get ahead of it.
Maintain a communications “loop”—acknowledge commands, statements, and questions of crewmembers.
Use resources appropriately to make informed decisions.
Resolve disagreements or differences in expectations—ensure that all crewmembers are working from the “same page.”
Manage errors appropriately to mitigate consequences.
Continuously review the appropriateness of decisions made and actions taken.
Debrief critical flight events—take the opportunity to learn from unusual events by reviewing the expectations and actions of all cockpit crewmembers at the end of the flight.
Par 9-15 Page 105 FIGURE 9-1. SAMPLE CRM SKILLS (CONTINUED) Develop and Maintain Teamwork Establish appropriate duties and responsibilities by crew position.
Back each other up through effective cross-check and acknowledgment.
Demonstrate motivation appropriate to the situation—transition between casual conversation and focused flight communication based on the need to prepare and execute your flight. This entire range is appropriate at different points in flight.
Protect crewmembers from the consequences of work overload.
Effectively coordinate with other groups: gate agents, dispatch, ground crew.
Apply judgment in use of automated systems and modes.
Operate the airplane using different levels of automation as appropriate to the situation.
Verify that automation is doing what you expect and act to control it when it does not.
Intervene to control autoflight.
When using automation, back each other up (verify settings, state intentions, establish roles).
Par 9-15 Page 106 FIGURE 9-2. SAMPLE EVENT SET WORKSHEET A340 EVENT SET NUMBER 101 WORKSHEET (FROM A340 R L 03-02 LEG 1) OVERVIEW. Low Visibility takeoff and climb with a reroute and a TCAS event.
Phase of Flight: Takeoff through Climb
SUCCESS CRITERIA TPOs and SPOs Conditions Technical Skills and Observables CRM Skills and Observables Trigger:
Departure weather, 200 overcast, RVR 1500.
Distracters:
TCAS RA, shortly after takeoff.
Supporting Events:
Reroute and climb restriction Difficulty Equivalency Rating:
Low Visibility takeoff - IMC – 4 FMS – 1 TCAS – 3 Total – 8 Low Visibility takeoff operations (2.1) Proper cleanup profile (2.1.4) Perform TCAS RA avoidance
(9.1.28) Perform climb operations
(3.1) Take Off Thrust – Normal IMC weather Proficient in use of FMS and Autopilot Flight Director System
(9.1.11) (9.1.13) Accomplishes takeoff/climb procedures IAW SOP (2.1.1) (2.1.2)
(2.1.3) (2.1.4)
(3.1.1) (3.1.2) Appropriate response to TCAS Alert (9.1.28) Crew coordinates for airspeed and altitude changes. (SA 3.4) Crew verbalizes and acknowledges changes in the altitude selector window. (AT 6.4) PF coordinates with PM in the use of automation. (AT 6.6)
Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1.
DEFINITIONS APPLICANT. A Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 119 certificate holder that is required to have a training program under 14 CFR part 121, § 121.401, or part 135, § 135.341. A part 142 training center that applies to conduct training and evaluation for an eligible certificate holder under an Advanced Qualification Program (AQP).
ATTITUDE. A persisting internal mental state that influences an individual’s choice of personal action toward some object, person, or event.
CERTIFICATE HOLDER. Holder of an Air Carrier Certificate or Operating Certificate and operations specifications that authorize 14 CFR part 121 or 135 operations.
COGNITIVE SKILLS. Those intellectual skills that are prerequisite to the performance of a task, subtask, element, or sub-element. The three primary categories of cognitive skill are discrimination, concept learning, and rule using.
CONDITION. One of the three primary components of a proficiency objective: performance, condition, and standard. The conditions describe the range of circumstances under which student performance will be measured and evaluated. Conditions may include the natural environment (ceiling, visibility, wind, turbulence, etc.), the operational environment (Navigational Aid (NAVAID) inoperable, conflicting air traffic, gate change, passengers not seated, etc.), or operational contingencies (abnormal situations and emergencies).
COURSEWARE. All instructional material a learner requires to complete a curriculum, in whatever media required, including manuals, visual aids, lesson plans, flight event descriptions, computer software programs, audiovisual programs, workbooks, handouts, etc.
CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM). The effective use of all available resources human resources, hardware, and information to achieve safe and efficient flight. For additional information, refer to the current edition of AC 120-51, Crew Resource Management Training.
CRITICALITY. A terminal proficiency or supporting objective for which the substandard task performance would adversely affect safety. The relative need for awareness, care, exactness, accuracy, or correctness during task performance. Critical tasks must be accomplished more frequently in training and evaluation than non-critical tasks.
CURRENCY. A terminal proficiency or supporting objective for which individuals and/or crews can maintain proficiency by repeated performance of the item in normal line operations.
For pilots, most currency items may be validated during line checks, while most non-currency items must be demonstrated during training, validation, or evaluation events in a simulator or flight training device (FTD).
Appendix 1 CURRICULUM. A portion of an AQP that covers one of three program areas: indoctrination, qualification, and continuing qualification. Qualification and continuing qualification program areas may include upgrade, transition, conversion, and requalification curriculums. The indoctrination program area addresses activities that are general in nature and are not aircraft or duty position specific. The qualification and continuing qualification programs address the required training and qualification activities for each specific make, model, and series aircraft (or variant) and for a specific duty position.
CURRICULUM DESIGN. The activities involved in organizing, clustering, sequencing and otherwise structuring the elements of instruction (objectives, lessons, evaluations, etc.) into an orderly flow of learning experiences to facilitate student performance.
CURRICULUM SEGMENT. An integral part of a curriculum, which can be separately evaluated and individually approved, but by itself does not qualify a person for a duty position.
(e.g., ground training segment, flight training segment, evaluation segment). The first level of curriculum detail (segment, module, lesson, and lesson element).
DE-IDENTIFIED DATA. Data that cannot be linked with a named individual.
DUTY. All the actions (tasks, subtasks, etc.) required by one’s position or occupation.
DUTY POSITION. The operating position of a crewmember, or other person. Includes seat dependent tasks. For operations under parts 121 and 135, duty positions include pilot in command (PIC), second in command (SIC), Flight Engineer (FE), flight navigator, instructor and evaluator, aircraft dispatcher, flight attendant (F/A), or other ground operations personnel such as those dealing in security or hazardous materials.
ELEMENT. A component of training analysis or design. In the case of task analysis, the element may be used as a level of analysis: phase of flight, task, subtask, element, sub-element, etc. In the case of curriculum design, the element may be used as a level of curriculum organization: curriculum, segment, module, lesson, lesson element, etc.
ENABLING OBJECTIVE (EO). A lower level learning objective that helps students master a higher level objective, such as a supporting or terminal level objective. The knowledge and skill prerequisites of maneuvers and procedures are usually trained as enabling proficiency objectives.
EVALUATION. Careful appraisal of an individual’s performance by an evaluator to ascertain whether the standards required for a specified level of proficiency have been demonstrated.
EVALUATION OF PROFICIENCY. In AQP, this is a Line Operational Evaluation (LOE) or an equivalent evaluation acceptable to the Administrator.
EVALUATION PERIOD. A period within the continuing qualification cycle during which each person must receive at least one training session and a proficiency evaluation. The initial continuing qualification cycle for any curriculum will be 24 months (plus or minus the 1 month grace period), and will contain two 12-month (plus or minus the 1 grace month) evaluation periods.
Appendix 1 EVALUATOR. A person who assesses the performance of crewmembers, instructors, other evaluators, aircraft dispatchers, or other operations personnel. An evaluator must have satisfactorily completed the certificate holder’s AQP evaluator training. All evaluators must be approved by the Administrator.
EVENT SET. A relatively independent segment of a scenario made up of several events, including an event trigger, possible distracters, and supporting events.
FLIGHT TRAINING. Training given in the aircraft, flight simulator, FTD, or other cockpit environment. See ground training.
FLIGHT TRAINING EQUIPMENT. Aircraft, flight training devices, or flight simulators that are used for any of the following purposes: (1) Required evaluation of individual or crew proficiency; (2) Training activities that determine if an individual is ready for an evaluation;
(3) Activities used to meet recency of experience requirements; and (4) Line-Operational Simulations (LOS).
FORMATIVE EVALUATION. Process of reviewing courseware for technical accuracy, instructional soundness, and suitability for use by instructor, evaluator, and student. Dry run of the total curriculum with a small group of students to test the effectiveness and efficiency of the training (e.g., small group tryout).
FREQUENCY. Number of occurrences of a task/subtask in a specific period of duty (one flight, one trip, 1 month, 1 year, etc.) How often a task/subtask is performed. Frequency may be used to determine currency (see currency) by comparing the frequency with which activities occur on the line, with the frequency required to maintain proficiency without additional training.
GROUND TRAINING. Aviation/aircraft specific training provided in a classroom, learning center, lecture hall or other traditional educational setting that occurs outside the cockpit environment.
INSTRUCTIONAL ANALYSIS. A process conducted during the design of instruction to identify the presentational components, or learning events, necessary for the student to master the complete range of skills, knowledge, attitudes, abilities, and CRM factors required for proficient performance.
INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT. A systematic methodology for deriving and maintaining qualification standards and associated curriculum content based on a documented analysis of the job tasks, skills, and knowledge required for job proficiency.
JOB. A job is the summation of functions, identified as tasks and subtasks, performed by an individual at work.
KNOWLEDGE. Specific information required to enable a student to develop the skills and attitudes to effectively recall facts, identify concepts, apply rules or principles, solve problems, and think creatively. Because knowledge is covert, students must be assigned overt activities to demonstrate their knowledge base.
Appendix 1 LESSON. A meaningful division of learning consistent with the method of study, learning, or testing of performance (proficiency) objectives. The third level of curriculum definition (segment, module, lesson, lesson element). Lessons usually contain objectives, training events, student materials, instructor materials, and an evaluation scheme or form.
LESSON ELEMENT. A subgroup of activities within a lesson. It is the fourth level of curriculum detail (segment, module, lesson, and lesson element).
LINE OPERATIONAL EVALUATION (LOE). The LOE is the primary proficiency evaluation. This evaluation addresses the individual’s ability to demonstrate technical and CRM skills appropriate to fulfilling job requirements in a full mission scenario environment. The intent of an LOE is to evaluate and verify that an individual’s job knowledge, technical skills, and CRM skills are commensurate with AQP qualification standards. The LOE is conducted in a simulation device approved for its intended use in the AQP. Under extenuating circumstances, the AQP proficiency evaluation may be accomplished in an aircraft, subject to FAA approval.
LINE OPERATIONAL SIMULATION (LOS). A simulator or FTD training session conducted in a “line environment” setting. LOS includes Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT), Line Operational Evaluation (LOE), Special Purpose Operational Training (SPOT). For additional information, refer to the current edition of AC 120-35, Flightcrew Member Line Operational Simulations: Line-Oriented Flight Training, Special Purpose Operational Training, Line Operational Evaluation.
LINE-ORIENTED FLIGHT TRAINING (LOFT). A LOS flight scenario designed for training purposes to provide practice in the integration of technical and CRM skills. LOFT is conducted using a complete cockpit flightcrew to the maximum extent feasible and is accomplished in an FAA-certified simulation device. For additional information, refer to AC 120-35.
MEDIA. Physical means for providing the instructional content and experience to the student.
Includes entire set of instructional presentation materials (e.g., workbook, videotape, overheads, computer-based training (CBT), mock-ups, FTDs, simulators, etc.).
MODULE. A group of subject matter under a specific curriculum segment. Second of four curriculum levels of detail (segment, module, lesson, and element). Often corresponds to a day of training or a device event, such as FTD #3 or flight simulator (SIM) #6).
MOTOR SKILL. Physical actions required to perform a specific task (subtask or element).
Students have acquired a motor skill not when they can simply perform a prescribed procedure, but when their movements are smooth, regular, and precisely timed. Those hands-on skills that are prerequisite to the performance of a task, subtask, element, or sub-element.
OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR. A behavior whose occurrence during the performance of an event is an indicator that the crew is handling the event properly. Observable behaviors are one part of the performance standards identified for each event.
PLANNED HOURS. Planned hours represent the estimated amount of time (as specified in a curriculum outline) that it takes an average student to complete a segment of instruction (to
Appendix 1 include all instruction, demonstration, practice, and evaluation, as appropriate, to reach proficiency). Planned hours replace the programmed hours associated with traditional programs.
The sum of planned hours will not be used by the FAA as a basis for program approval, review, or compliance assessment.
PROTEUS. A software program containing formats, functionality, procedures, and sample documents designed to guide and automate portions of the development of AQPs.
RANDOM LINE CHECK. A no-notice (not scheduled and with no prior notification) proficiency assessment of an entire flightcrew’s operational proficiency conducted by an evaluator during part 121 or 135 revenue flight operations or during operationally oriented flight, such as ferry flights or proving flights.
SKILL. An ability to perform an activity or action. Often divided into motor/hands-on and cognitive categories.
SPECIAL PURPOSE OPERATIONAL TRAINING (SPOT). A portion of an LOS training scenario consisting of flight tasks selected from any phase or phases of flight to provide practice in the integration of technical and CRM skills appropriate to the selected flight tasks. SPOT is conducted using a complete cockpit flightcrew to the maximum extent feasible and is accomplished in a simulation device. For additional information, refer to AC 120-35, as amended.
SUBTASK. Specific separate step or activity required in the accomplishment of a task. May also refer to categories of a task (e.g., non-precision approach – VOR, NDB, LOC, etc.)
SUPPORTING PROFICIENCY OBJECTIVE (SPO). A proficiency objective created at the subtask level.
TASK. A task is a unit of work within a function having an identifiable beginning and ending point, which results in a measurable product. An example of a task applicable to AQP: perform a normal takeoff.
TECHNICAL SKILLS. Within an AQP, technical skills refer to those maneuvers, procedures and other behaviors that have a high psychomotor component, while CRM skills refer to those communication, decision-making and workload management behaviors that have a high cognitive component.
TERMINAL PROFICIENCY OBJECTIVE (TPO). A proficiency objective created at the task level.
TPO/SPO HIERARCHY. The hierarchy of all TPOs and SPOs organized by phase of flight in the Proteus database.
TRAINING SESSION. A contiguously scheduled period of time devoted to training activities at a facility acceptable to the Administrator for that purpose.