Section 4. Personnel and Cargo Accommodations114
1. § 23.771 Pilot Compartment114
2. § 23.773 Pilot Compartment View114
3. § 23.775 Windshields and Windows115
4. § 23.777 Cockpit Controls115
5. § 23.785 Seats, Berths, Litters, Safe ty Belts and Shoulder Harnesses115
6. § 23.803 Emergency Evacuation116
7. § 23.807 Emergency Exits116
8. § 23.831 Ventilation116
Section 5. Pressurization117
1. § 23.841 Pressurization Cabins117
2. § 23.843 Pressurization Tests117
Chapter 4. Subpart E--Powerplant118
Section 1. General118
1. § 23.901 Installation118
2. § 23.903 Engines118
3. § 23.905 Propellers121
4. § 23.909 Turbo Superchargers121
5. § 23.925 Propeller Clearance121
6. § 23.929 Engine Installation Ice Protection121
7. § 23.933 Reversing Systems121
8. § 23.939 Powerplant Operating Characteristics122
9. § 23.943 Negative Acceleration123
Section 2. Fuel System123
1. § 23.959 Unusable Fuel Supply123
2. § 23.961 Fuel System Hot Weather Operation123
Section 3. Fuel System Components123
1. § 23.1001 Fuel Jettisoning System123
Section 4. Oil System124
1. § 23.1027 Propeller Feathering System124
Section 5. Cooling125
1. § 23.1041 General125
2. § 23.1043 Cooling Tests125
3. § 23.1045 Cooling Test Procedures for Turbine Engine-Powered Airplanes125
4. § 23.1047 Cooling Test Procedures for Reci procating Engine-Powered Airplanes129
Section 6. Induction System132
1. § 23.1091 Air Induction132
2. § 23.1093 Induction System Icing Protection132
vii
Section 7. Powerplant Controls and Accessories136
1. § 23.1141 Powerplant Controls: General137
2. § 23.1145 Ignition Switches137
3. § 23.1153 Propeller Feathering Controls137
Section 8. Powerplant Fire Protection137
1. § 23.1189 Shutoff Means137
Chapter 5. Subpart F--Equipment138
Section 1. General138
1. § 23.1301 Function and Installation138
2. § 23.1303 Flight and Navi gation Instruments147
3. § 23.1305 Powerplant Instruments147
4. § 23.1307 Miscellaneous Equipment148
5. § 23.1309 Equipment, Systems, and Installations148
Section 2. Instruments: Installation148
1. § 23.1311 Electronic Display Instrument Systems148
2. § 23.1321 Arrangement and Visibility148
3. § 23.1322 Warning, Caution, and Advisory Lights148
4. § 23.1323 Airspeed Indicating System148
5. § 23.1325 Static Pressure System149
6. § 23.1326 Pitot Heat Indication Systems152
7. § 23.1327 Magnetic Direction Indicator152
8. § 23.1329 Automatic Pilot System152
9. § 23.1331 Instruments Using a Power Supply152
10. § 23.1335 Flight Director Systems152
11. § 23.1337 Powerplant Instruments152
Section 3. Electrical Systems and Equipment152
1. § 23.1351 General152
2. § 23.1353 Storage Battery Design and Installation153
Reserved153
3. § 23.1357 Circuit Protective Devices153
4. § 23.1361 Master Switch Switch Arrangement153
5. § 23.1367 Switches153
Section 4. Lights153
1. § 23.1381 Instrument Lights153
2. § 23.1383 Landing Lights153
Section 5. Safety Equipment153
1. § 23.1411 General153
2. § 23.1415 Ditching Equipment153
3. § 23.1416 Pneumatic Deicer Boot System153
4. § 23.1419 Ice Protection153
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Section 6. Miscellaneous Equipment153
1. § 23.1431 Electronic Equipment153
2. §23.1435 Hydraulic Systems153
3. § 23.1441 Oxygen Equipment and Supply153
4. § 23.1447 Equipment Standards for Oxygen Dispensing Units153
5. § 23.1449 Means for Determining Use of Oxygen153
6. § 23.1457 Cockpit Voice Recorders153
7. § 23.1459 Flight Data Recorders154
Chapter 6. Subpart G--Operating Limitations and Information155
Section 1. General155
1 § 23.1501 General155
2. § 23.1505 Airspeed Limitations155
3. § 23.1507 Maneuvering Speed155
4. § 23.1511 Flap Extended Speed155
5. § 23.1513 Minimum Control Speed155
6. § 23.1519 Weight and Center of Gravity155
7. § 23.1521 Powerplant Limitations155
8. § 23.1523 Minimum Flight Crew156
9. § 23.1523 Minimum Flight Crew156
10. § 23.1524 Maximum Passenger Seating Configuration160
11. § 23.1525 Kinds of Operation160
12. § 23.1527 Maximum Operating Altitude160
Section 2. Markings and Placards161
1. § 23.1541 General161
2. § 23.1543 Instrument Markings: General162
3. § 23.1545 Airspeed Indicator162
4. § 23.1547 Magnetic Direction Indicator162
5. § 23.1549 Powerplant Instruments162
6. § 23.1551 Oil Quantity Indicator162
7. § 23.1553 Fuel Quantity Indicator162
8. § 23.1555 Control Markings162
9. § 23.1557 Miscellaneous Markings and Placards162
10. § 23.1559 Operating Limitations Placard162
11. § 23.1561 Safety Equipment162
12. § 23.1563 Airspeed Placards163
13. § 23.1567 Flight Maneuver Placard163
Section 3. Airplane Flight Manual and Approved Manual Material163
1. § 23.1581 General163
2. § 23.1583 Operating Limitations165
3. § 23.1585 Operating Procedures167
4. § 23.1587 Performance Information168
5. § 23.1589 Loading Information170
ix
Appendix 1. Power Available
1. General
2. Reciprocating Engines
3. Normally Aspirated Engines with Constant Speed Propellers
4. Turbocharged Engines with Constant Speed Propellers
5. Normally Aspirated Engines with Fixed Pitch Propellers
6. Turbopropeller Engines Appendix 2. Climb Data Reduction
1. Drag Polar Method
2. Density Altitude Method Appendix 3. Static Minimum Control Speed
1. General
2. Calculation Method
3. Cautions and Assumptions
4. Sample Calculations Appendix 4 FAR-23 Manuals, Markings, & Placards Checklist Appendix 5 –Guide for Preparing Airplane Flight Manual and Pilots’s Operating Handbook Supplements
1. Introduction
2. General Appendix 6. Sample Kinds of Operating Equipment List Appendix 7. Useful Information Appendix 8. Conversion Factors Table Appendix 9. Airspeed Calibrations Introduction General Discussion of the Various Flight Test Techniques
1. Trailing Bomb or Cone Method
2. Speed Course Method
3. GPS Method
4. Pace Airplane Method
5. Pitot Static Boom Data
6. Tower Fly By Method
7. Ground Run Airspeed System Calibration Appendix 10. Guide for Determining Clim b Performance After STC Modifications
1. Introduction
2. General
3. Procedure for Extending Climb Performance to Additional Airplanes
4. ‘One Only’ Airplane x
List of Figures
Figure 1 Stall Speed17
Figure A1-1 – Brake Horsepow er Versus Pressure Altitude Figure A1-2 - Turbocharged Brake Horsepower Versus Altitude Figure A2-1 - Coefficient of Drag Versus Coefficient of Lift Figure A3-1 - Thrust Horsepower at Sea Level Figure A7-1 – U.S. Standard Atmosphere (1962) Figure A7-2 – Temperature Conversion Chart Figure A7-3 – Determination of Air Temperature in Relation to International Standard Atmosphere Figure A7-4 – Density/Pressure Altitude Conversion Figure A7-5 – Compressibility Correction CAS Figure A7-6 – Altimeter Error vs. CAS Figure A7-7 – Temperature RAM Rise Figure A7-8 – Stalling Speed as a Function of Angle of Bank Figure A7-9 – Vectoral Acceleration Versus Angle of Bank Figure A7-10 Figure A7-11 – Takeoff and Landing Crosswind Component Chart Figure A9-1 - Error Analysis of Ground Course Method
Figure 2 Propeller Coefficients19
Figure 3 Zero Thrust19
Figure 4 Thrust Effect on Stall C L20
Figure 5 - Accelerate-Stop Time Delays35
Figure 6 Takeoff Distance Critical Engine Failure Recognized at V143
Figure 7 - Takeoff Distance - All Engines Operating43
Figure 8 - Takeoff Run - Critical Engine Failure Recognized at V144
Figure 9 - Takeoff Run - All Engines Operating44
Figure 10 - Clearway Profiles45
Figure 11 - Takeoff Segments and Nomenclature46
Figure 12- Net Takeoff Flight Path47
Figure 13 - Observed Data49
Figure 14 - Rate of Climb vs. Airspeed51
Figure 15 - Rate of Climb and Speeds52
Figure 16 - Landing Time Delays61
Figure 17 - Stick Force Per G77
Figure 18 - Static Longitudinal Stability Data80
Figure 19 - Low Speed Instabilities; Normal, Utility, and Acrobatic Airplanes81
Figure 20 - Low Speed Instabilities; Commuter Airplanes82
Figure 21 – Static Longitudinal Stability Data over Complete Speed Range83
Figure 22 - Static Longitudinal Stability Plot (Cruise Condition)86
Figure 23 - Spin Evaluation Configuration Matrix103
Figure 24 – Sample Calculation128
Figure 25 – Corrected Cylinder Barrel Temperature131
Figure 26 – Correct Cylinder Head Temperature132
Figure 27 - Carburetor Air Heat Rise Calculations135
Figure 28 - Carburetor Air Heat Rise Plots136
xi
Figure A9-2 - Summary of PEC Test Methods Figure A9-3 - Sketches of Trailing Static Bomb and the Trailing Static Cone (not to scale) Figure A9-4 - Typical Position Error Correction Data for an Aircraft Figure A9-5 Typical Position Error Corrections Data for an Aircraft Figure A9-6 Tower Fly-By Method Figure A9-7 - Trapped Static Source Schematic Figure A9-8 - Ground Airspeed Calibration
List of Tables
Table 1 - Tolerances3
Table A3-1 – Flight Test Data Table A3-2 - Tabulated Thrust Horsepower Available and Calculated VMC
Table A9-1 - Sample Speed Course Data and Data Reduction Table A9-2 - Trapped Static (TS) Data Reduction Table A9-3 - Sample Ground Airspeed Calibration Using a Distance Measuring Unit
Table 2 - Corrections to Standard Value Parameter3
Table 3 – Sample Portion of Airspeed Indicator Calibration5
Table 4 - Smooth, Flat Runway14
Table 5 - AFM Acceleration Height39
Table 6 - WAT Chart54
Table 7 - Procedures76
Table 8 - Trim Systems Requirements113
Table 9 – Sample of Co-Concentration Matrix116
Table 10 – Light Duration141
xiii
Chapter 1. Subpart A--General
1. § 23.1 Applicability.
a. Explanation.
(1) Airplane Categories. Section 23.1(a) is introducto ry and prescribes the airplane categories eligible for certification under 14 CFR part 23. Applicants should refer to 14 CFR part 21 for certification procedures.
(2) Design Data. Section 23.1(b) requires an app licant to demonstrate compliance by some acceptable means even though the FAA has previously certificated an identical alteration for someone else and has the supporting data on file. Design data submitted with an application for certification is not releasable to the public or any other applicant without the consent of the data holder.
b. Procedures. None.
2. § 23.3 Airplane Categories.
a. Explanation. For normal/utility category as well as for commuter category airplanes, stalls (except whip stalls) are approved maneuvers. In this context, approved stalls are to be understood to be stalls as defined in §§ 23.49, 23.201, and 23.203.
b. Procedures. None.
Chapter 2 Subpart B – Flight Section 1. General
1. § 23.21 Proof of Compliance.
a. Explanation.
(1) Determining Compliance. This section provides a de gree of latitude for the FAA test team in selecting the combination of tests or inspections required to demonstrate compliance with the regulations. Engineeri ng tests are designed to investigate the overall capabilities and characteristics of the airplane throughout its operating envelope and should include sufficient combinations of weight, center of gravity, altitude, temperature, airspeed, and so forth, necessary to define the envelope and show compliance within. These engineering tests should define the limits of the entire operating envelope and establish compliance with the regulations. If compliance cannot be established between these points, additional testing should be conducted to determine compliance. The applicant could also apply for an equivalent level of safety (ELOS) or an exemption to the regulation if warranted by new designs or technology. Testing should confirm normal and emergency procedures, performance information, and operating limitations that are to be included in the airplane flight manual (AFM).
(2) Flight Tests. Section 21.35 requires, in part, that the applicant make flight tests and report the results of the flight tests. After the applicant has submitted sufficient data to the FAA showing that compliance can be met, the FAA will conduct any inspections, flight, or ground tests required to verify the applicant's test results. Compliance may be based on the applicant's engineering data and a spot check or validation through FAA flight tests. The FAA testing should obtain validation at critical combinations of proposed flight variables if compliance cannot be established using engineering judgment from the combinations investigated.
(3) Use of Ballast. Ballast may be carried during the flight tests whenever it is necessary to achieve a specific weight and center of gravity (c.g.) location. Consideration should be given to the vertical as well as horizontal location of the ballast in cases where it may have an appreciable effect on the flying qualities of the airplane. The strength of the supporting structures should be considered to preclude their failure as a result of the anticipated loads that may be imposed during the particular tests.
(4) Flight Test Tolerances. The purpose of the toleran ces specified in § 23.21(b) is to allow for variations in flight test values from which data are acceptable for reduction to the value desired. They are not intende d for routine test scheduling at the lower weights, or to allow for compliance to be shown at less than the critical condition; nor are they to be considered as allowable inaccuracy of measurement (such as in an airspeed calibration). Where variation in the parameter on which a tolerance is allowed will have an effect on the results of the test, the result should be corrected to the most critical value of that parameter within the operating 2
envelope being approved. If such a correction is impossible or impractical, the average test conditions should assure that the measured characteristics represent the actual critical value.
(5) Additional acceptable tolerances. Additional acceptable tolerances appear in table 1 below:
Table 1 - Tolerances Item Tolerance Airspeed 3 knots or ±3 percent (%), whichever is greater Power ±5 percent Wind (takeoff and, landing tests, not for crosswind component testing) As low as possible, but not to exceed approximately 12 percent VS1 or 10 knots, whichever is lower, along the runway measured at a height of 6 feet above the runway surface. At higher wind velocities, the data may be unreliable due to wind variations and unsmooth flight conditions.
(6) Corrections to a standard value. Cases in which corrections to a standard value of the parameter are normally allowed appear in table 2 below:
Table 2 - Corrections to Standard Value Parameter Test Weight Density Power/ Thrust Airspeed Other Takeoff Performance X X X X Wind, runway gradient Landing Performance X X — X Wind, runway gradient Stall Speed X — — — Climb Performance X X X X Acceleration Glide Performance X X - X VMC — X X —
(7) Function and Reliability (F&R) Test. Section 21.35(b)(2) specifies the requirements of F&R tests, which are required for aircraft with a maximum certificated weight over 6,000 pounds (lbs) (2730 kilograms (kg)). (Complex airplanes that include features like Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) engines, pressurization, and avionics integrated with flight 3
management software (FMS) and autopilot capability should consider a comprehensive F&R testing program regardless of weight.)
b. Procedures.
(1) Test Plan. Efforts should begin early in the certification program to provide assistance to the applicant to develop a certification plan and subsequently a test plan to ensure coverage of all certification requirements. The applicant should develop a test plan that includes the required instrumentation.
(2) Instrument Calibration. Test instrumentation (trans ducers, indicators, and other installed instrumentation) should be calibrated (removed from the airplane and bench checked by an approved method in an approved facility) within six months of the tests. When electronic recording devices are used, such as oscillographs, data loggers, and other electronic data acquisition devices, preflight and post-flight parameter recalibrations should be run for each test flight to ensure that none of the parameters have shifted from their initial zero settings. Critical transducers and indicators for critical tests (for example, airspeed indicators and pressure transducers for flight tests to VD) should be calibrated within 60 days of the test in addition to the other requirements mentioned above. The instrument hysteresis should be known; therefore, readings at suitable increments should be taken in both increasing and decreasing directions.
Calibration records, like the one shown in table 3, should be signed by the agent of the repair or overhaul facility doing the work and be available to the test pilot prior to beginning test flying. It should be emphasized that these calibrations must be accomplished at an approved facility. For example, performing a pitot-static/air data system leak check to "calibrate" an airspeed indicator, whether in or out of the airplane, is not acceptable.
Table 3 – Sample Portion of Airspeed Indicator Calibration XYZ INSTRUMENT SERVICE, INC.
ABC CITY AIRPORT APPROVED REPAIR STATION - NO. 1234 8/12/80 P/N 1701DX8-04 S/N AF55-17044 A/S Indicator KNOTS Master Test Ascent Indicator Reads Descent Indicator Reads 40 38.0 39.0 50 49.0 50.5 60 59.5 61.0 70 70.0 71.0 80 80.0 81.0
(3) Use of Ballast.
(i) Loading. Ballast loading of the airplane can be accomplished several ways to achieve a specific weight and c.g. location as long as the loading remains within the physical confines of the airplane. In flight test work, loading problems will occasionally be encountered, making it difficult to obtain the desired c.g. location. Those cases may require loading in engine compartments or other places not designed for load carrying. When this condition is encountered, care should be taken to ensure that local structural stresses are not exceeded or that airplane flight characteristics are not changed due to changes in moments of inertia caused by adding a very long arm (tail post, and so forth).
(ii) Solid and Liquid Ballast. There are basically two t ypes of ballast that may be used in airplane loading: solid or liquid. The solids are usually high-density materials such as lead or sandbags, while the liquid is usually water. In critical tests, the ballast should be loaded in a manner so that disposal in flight, if considered, can be accomplished and be located at a point that will produce a significant c.g. shift to a less critical c.g. location. Applicants should perform a simple structural analysis for complex load installations that have the potential to interfere with safe flight and landing if there was a failure of the supporting structure. In any case, the load should be securely attached in its loaded position. In airplanes with multiple fuel 5