(C) Does not introduce difficulties in airplane controllability or engine response/operation in the event that approved takeoff power is applied at any point in the takeoff path.
(D) Is at least 75 percent of the approved takeoff power.
(E) Is predicated on a careful analysis of propeller efficiency variation in all applicable conditions.
(iii) Relevant speeds used for reduced power takeoffs are not less than those that will show compliance with the required controllability margins with the approved takeoff power.
(iv) The AFM states, as a limitation, that reduced takeoff power settings may not be used as follows:
(A) When the antiskid system (if installed) is inoperative;
(B) On runways contaminated with standing water, snow, slush or ice;
(C) On wet runways unless suitable performance accountability is made to the increased acceleration and stopping distances on these surfaces; or
(D) Where items affecting performance cause a significant increase in crew workload. Examples are inoperative equipment (for example, inoperative engine gauges, reversers or engine systems resulting in the need for additional performance corrections) or non-standard operations (that is, any situation requiring a nonstandard takeoff technique).
(v) Procedures for reliably determining and applying the reduced takeoff power value are simple, and the pilot is provided with information to obtain both the reduced power and approved takeoff power for each ambient condition.
(vi) The AFM provides adequate information to conduct a power check, using the approved takeoff power and, if necessary, establish a time interval.
(vii) Procedures are given for the use of reduced power.
(viii) Application of reduced power in service is always at the discretion of the pilot.
23. SECTION 23.59 TAKEOFF DISTANCE AND TAKEOFF RUN.
a. Takeoff Distance - Section 23.59(a).
(1) Explanation. The takeoff distance is either of the two distances depicted in figure 23-1 and 23-2 and discussed in paragraph 23a(l)(a) or (b), whichever is greater. The distances indicated below are measured horizontally from the main landing gears at initial brake release to that same point on the airplane when the lowest part of the departing airplane is 35 feet 37
above the surface of the runway and accomplished in accordance with the procedures developed for § 23.57.
(i) The distance measured to 35 feet with a critical engine failure recognized at V1. See figure 23-1.
Takeoff Distance Start V 1 V LOF 35'
FIGURE 23-1 TAKEOFF DISTANCE Critical Engine Failure Recognized at V1
(ii) One hundred fifteen percent (115%) of the distance measured to 35 feet with all engines operating. See figure 23-2.
All Engine Distance Start V LOF 35' Takeoff Distance = 1.15 * All Engine Distance to 35'
FIGURE 23-2 - TAKEOFF DISTANCE All Engines Operating
b. Takeoff Run - Section 23.59(b).
(1) Explanation.
(i) Takeoff run is a term used for the runway length when the takeoff distance includes a clearway and the takeoff run is either of the two distances depicted in figure 23-1 and 23- 2, and discussed in paragraph 23b(1)(i)(A) or (B), whichever is greater. A clearway is where the accelerate-go distance does not remain entirely over the runway.. These distances are measured as described in § 23.59(a). When using a clearway to determine the takeoff run, no more than one-half of the air distance from VLOF to the 35 foot point may be flown over the clearway.
(A) The distance from start of takeoff roll to the mid-point between liftoff and the point at which the airplane attains a height of 35 feet above the takeoff surface, with a critical engine failure recognized at V1. See figure 23-3.
Clearway Ground Roll Takeoff Run Takeoff Distance Mid-pointStart V1 VLOF 35'
FIGURE 23-3 - TAKEOFF RUN Critical Engine Failure Recognized at V1
(B) One hundred fifteen percent (115%) of the distance from start of roll to the midpoint between liftoff and the point at which the airplane attains a height of 35 feet above the takeoff surface, with all engines operating. See figure 23-4.
Clearway
1.15 * Distance to Mid-point Takeoff Run = Required Runway Takeoff Distance = 1.15 * All Engine Distance to 35' Mid-pointStart VLOF 35' Takeoff Path
FIGURE 23-4 - TAKEOFF RUN All Engines Operating
(ii) There may be situations in which the one-engine-inoperative condition (paragraph 23b(1)(i)(A)) would dictate one of the distance criteria, takeoff run (required runway) or takeoff distance (required runway plus clearway), while the all-engines operating condition (paragraph 23b(1)(i)(B)) would dictate the other; therefore, both conditions should be considered.
(iii) For the purpose of establishing takeoff distances and takeoff runs, the clearway plane is defined in Part 1. The clearway is considered to be part of the takeoff surface, and a height of 35 feet may be measured from that surface. See figure 23-5.
Clearway 35' Takeoff Path Clearway Plane
1.25% Maximum
FIGURE 23-5 - CLEARWAY PROFILES
24. SECTION 23.61 TAKEOFF FLIGHT PATH.
a. Takeoff Flight Path - Section 23.61(a). The takeoff flight path begins 35 feet above the takeoff surface at the end of the takeoff distance determined in accordance with § 23.59. The takeoff flight path ends when the airplane's height is the higher of 1,500 feet above the takeoff surface or at an altitude at which the configuration and speed have been achieved in accordance with § 23.67(c)(3). See figure 24-1.
b. Net Takeoff Flight Path. - Section 23.61(b) and (c).
(1) The net takeoff flight path is the actual path diminished by a gradient of 0.8 percent for two-engine airplanes, 0.9 percent for three-engine airplanes, and 1.0 percent for four-engine airplanes. See figure 24-2.
(2) The net takeoff flight path is the flight path used to determine the airplane obstacle clearance. Section 23.61(b) states the required climb gradient reduction to be applied throughout the flight path to determine the net flight path, including the level flight acceleration segment. Rather than decrease the level flight path by the amount required by § 23.61(b), § 23.61(c) allows the airplane to maintain a level net flight path during acceleration but with a reduction in acceleration equal to the gradient decrement required by § 23.61(b). By this method, the applicant exchanges altitude reduction for increased distance to accelerate in level flight in determination of the level flight portion of the net takeoff path.
SEGMENT*
LANDING GEAR FLAPS POWER
AIRSPEED
ENGINES GROUND ROLL 1st 2nd ACCELERATION FINAL
DOWN RETRACTION RETRACTED
TAKEOFF RETRACTING ENROUTE POSITION
PROPELLER
TAKEOFF ABOVE 400 FT THRUST CAN BE REDUCED IF THE REQUIREMENTS OF 23.57(c)(3) CAN
BE MET WITH LESS THAN TAKEOFF THRUST
MAXIMUM
CONTINUOUS
ACCELERATING ACCELERATING VENROUTE
ALL OPERATING ONE INOPERATIVE
TAKEOFF ONE AUTOFEATHERED OR WINDMILLING ONE FEATHERED UP TO 400 FT 400 FT OR GREATER
V EF V LOF 35 FT
TAKEOFF DISTANCE (LONGER OF 1 ENG INOP TAKEOFF OR 1.15 ALL ENG TAKEOFF) PATH 1 PATH 2
TAKEOFF FLIGHT PATH 1500 FTHEIGHT > 1500 FT HEIGHT > 400 FT
HEIGHTS ARE
REFERENCED TO
RUNWAY ELEVATION AT
END OF TAKEOFF DISTANCE SEE NOTE SEE NOTE V2
Note: The en route takeoff segment* usually begins with the airplane in the en route configuration and with maximum continuous thrust, but it is not required that these conditions exist until the end of the takeoff path when compliance with § 23.67(c)(3) is shown. The time limit on takeoff thrust cannot be exceeded.
* Segments as defined by § 23.67.
FIGURE 24-1 - TAKEOFF SEGMENTS AND NOMENCLATURE 42
35' 35' Net Flight Path Level from Takeoff Surface >400' Obstacle Clearance
FIGURE 24-2 - NET TAKEOFF FLIGHT PATH
25. SECTION 23.65 CLIMB: ALL ENGINES OPERATING.
a. Explanation.
(1) Objectives. The climb tests associated with this requirement are performed to establish the airplane's all-engine performance capability for altitudes between sea level and not less than 10,000 feet with wing flaps set to the takeoff position. This is necessary to enable comparison with the minimum climb performance required and for AFM presentation of climb performance data of 10,000 feet including the effect of altitude and temperature (see § 23.1587) and including the effect of weight for aircraft over 6,000 pounds maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) and turbine engine aircraft.
(2) Cooling Climbs. Applicants with single engine reciprocating powered airplanes may vary the climb speeds to meet the requirements of § 23.1047. If variations in climb speeds are required to meet the cooling tests, the applicant may wish to establish the variation of rate of climb with speed.
(3) Sawtooth Climbs. A common method of determining climb performance is sawtooth climbs. A series of climbs, known as sawtooth climbs, should be conducted at several constant indicated airspeeds using a constant power setting and a prescribed configuration. A minimum of three series of sawtooth climbs should be conducted. The mean altitudes through which the sawtooth climbs are conducted should be:
(i) As near sea level as practical; and
(ii) Close to the ceiling (where 100 feet/minute can be maintained) for sea level engines;
and
(iii) An intermediate altitude, taking into consideration the power characteristics of the engine.
b. Procedures - Sawtooth Climbs.
(1) Climb Technique. With the altimeter adjusted to a setting of 29.92 inches Hg (pressure altitude), the series of climbs should be initiated at a chosen altitude. Stabilize airspeed and power prior to recording data. The time at the beginning of each run should be recorded for weight-accounting purposes, and the stabilized climb should be continued for 3 minutes or 43
3,000 feet minimum while holding airspeed substantially constant. Climbs should be conducted 90 degrees to the wind and, alternately, on reciprocal headings to minimize the effects of windshear. Since the rate at which the altitude changes is the primary consideration of the test, particular care should be taken to observe the precise altimeter indication at precise time intervals. Time intervals of not more than 30 seconds are recommended for altimeter readings. Airspeed, ambient temperatures, r.p.m., and other engine power parameters also should be recorded, permissibly at longer intervals. Rates-of-climb/sink observed for test conditions should be greater than +100 feet-per-minute. Rates of climb near zero tend to be unreliable. A running plot of altitude-versus-time provides an effective means of monitoring acceptability of test data as the run progresses, and a running plot of the observed rate of climb obtained for each airspeed enables similar monitoring of the sawtooth program. This procedure is recommended because it affords opportunity for promptly observing and economically rectifying questionable test results.
(2) Air Quality. In order to obtain accurate results, it is essential that the sawtooth climbs be conducted in smooth air. In general, the effects of turbulence are more pronounced in test data obtained at lower rates of climb and, when testing for compliance with minimum climb requirements, even slight turbulence may produce errors in observed climbs of such magnitude as to render the data inconclusive with respect both to rate of climb and best climb speed. Less obvious but equally unacceptable for climb testing is the presence of an inverse gradient in the ambient temperature.
(3) Test Airspeeds. The airspeeds selected for the sawtooth should bracket the best climb speed, which for preliminary purposes may be estimated as 140 percent of the power-off stalling speed. The lowest climb test speed should be as near the stalling speed as can be flown without evidence of buffeting or necessity for abnormally frequent or excessive control movements, which might penalize the climb performance. Although the example shown in figure 25-1 has 10-knot intervals, the interval between test speeds should be smaller at the lowspeed end of the range and should increase as the speed increases. Suggested intervals are 5 knots at the low end, varying to 15 knots at the high end. In addition, the maximum level flight speed and VS (or VMIN) at the approximate mid-range test altitude provide a useful aid in defining the curves in figure 25-2.
(4) Data Plotting. Sawtooth climb data is plotted on a graph using altitude and time as the basic parameters as shown in figure 25-1. After the sawtooth data has been plotted, draw in the mean altitude line. A tangent line can now be drawn to each of the sawtooth climb curves at the mean altitude intersection. By determining the slope of the tangent lines, the observed rate of climb at the mean altitude for each sawtooth can be determined.
(5) Data Corrections. For the density altitude method of data reduction (see Appendix 2), it is necessary to correct the data to standard atmospheric conditions, maximum weight, and chart brake horsepower before proceeding any further with the observed data. These corrections sometimes change the observed data a significant amount. The maximum level flight speed (VMAX) data points should also be corrected to assist in defining the curves in figure 25-2.
(6) Plotting of Corrected Data. After the observed data has been corrected to the desired standards, it can be plotted as shown in figure 25-2 with the rate of climb versus calibrated airspeed at various density altitudes. It should be noted that the stall speed points are not 44
usually true stabilized zero rate-of-climb data points. However, the stall speed points are useful in defining the asymptotic character of the left hand part of the curve.
FIGURE 25-1 - OBSERVED DATA
(7) Speed Schedule Data Points. From the curves of figure 25-2, it is now possible to determine the airplane's best rate of climb speed schedule, VY. This is done by drawing a straight line through the peaks (highest rate of climb point) of each of the previously drawn curves of Rate-of-climb vs. CAS. Also, it is possible to obtain from this graph the best angle of climb speed schedule, VX. This is done by drawing tangent lines to the Rate-of-climb vs.
CAS curves from the graph origin and connecting each of the tangent intersect points with a straight line. It should be noted that the VX and VY speed lines intersect at "zero" rate of climb. This is because zero rate of climb occurs at the airplane's absolute ceiling and VX, VY, VMIN, and VMAX are all the same speed at this point.
(8) Speed and Rate of Climb. Directly from information obtained from figure 25-2, it is possible to plot the climb performance of the airplane into a more usable form. By reading the rates of climb at the VY intersect points and plotting them against altitude, as shown in figure 25-3, it is possible to determine the rate of climb from sea level to the absolute ceiling.
(9) Cowl Flap and Mixture. Cowl flaps should be in the position used for cooling tests. The mixture setting should be set to that used during the cooling test.
(10) Weight and C.G. For climb performance tests, the airplane's test weight, load distribution and engine power should be recorded. Usually, forward c.g. is critical for climb performance.
c. Continuous Climb. For engine changes where the objective is to determine that new climb performance is equal to or better than the old climb performance and the all-engine climb performance is obviously in excess of the requirements of § 23.65, a continuous climb may be used to obtain the data. The rate of climb data at a convenient number of points should be reduced to standard day conditions.
d. Extrapolation of Climb Data. The climb data expansion required by § 23.1587 from sea level to 10,000 feet and from ISA to ISA + 30 °C can be accomplished by the methods in Appendix 2. Normally, the same method used for data reduction should be used for data expansion. Use caution in extrapolating beyond altitudes that have not been verified by flight tests. Generally, data should not be extrapolated more than 3,000 feet in altitude.
FIGURE 25-2 - RATE OF CLIMB VS. AIRSPEED
e. Special Equipment or Instrumentation. Climb performance tests require an airspeed indicator, sensitive altimeter, and total air temperature indicator with a known recovery factor.
For reciprocating engine-powered airplanes, an induction air temperature gauge, engine tachometer, manifold pressure gauge, and cylinder head temperature indicator may be appropriate. For turbine-powered airplanes, indicators of power parameters, such as torque meter, EGT, N1, N2, and propeller r.p.m., may be appropriate. Either a fuel counter or fuel flowmeter, or both, is useful. All instruments should be calibrated, and the calibration data should be included with the test records. In addition, a stopwatch and appropriate data recording board and forms are required.
f. Climb Performance After STC Modifications. (Reserved)
26. SECTION 23.66 TAKEOFF CLIMB, ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE.
Section 23.66(1) for normal, utility, and acrobatic category airplanes greater than 6,000 lbs. and turbine-engine powered airplanes in the normal, utility, and acrobatic category requires the propeller of the inoperative engine to be in the position it "rapidly and automatically assumes" for the determination of one-engine inoperative takeoff climb performance. This allows performance credit for a reliable system that rapidly drives the propeller to a low drag setting with no action from the pilot. If no such system is fitted, the propeller should be assumed to be in the most critical condition.
5,000 10,000 15,000 500 1,000 1,500
RATE-OF-CLIMB
DENSITY
ALTITUDE
AIRPSEED - KCAS NORMALLY ASPIRATED RECIP. ENGINE - FULL THROTTLE TURBO CHARGED RECIP. ENGINETURBOPROP ENGINE 90 100 VX VY
NORMALLY
ASPIRATED ENGINE
SHP VARYING
WITH ALTITUDE
MP VARYING WITH
ALTITUDE
CONSTANT
SHPCONSTANT MP
FIGURE 26-1 - RATE OF CLIMB AND SPEEDS
27. SECTION 23.67 CLIMB: ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE.
a. Explanation.
(1) Performance Matrix. For all multiengine airplanes, § 23.67 requires the one-engineinoperative climb performance be determined in the specified configuration. The requirements of § 23.67 are summarized in Table 27-1.
(2) Range of Tests. The primary objective of the climb tests associated with this requirement is to establish the airplane's climb performance capability with one engine inoperative for altitudes between sea level and 10,000 feet or higher and temperatures from ISA to ISA + 30 47
°C. This is necessary to enable comparison with the prescribed climb requirement at 5,000 feet altitude and for AFM presentation of climb performance data for altitudes and temperatures as prescribed in § 23.1587. Secondary objectives are:
(i) To establish the climb speed to be used in the cooling tests required by § 23.1041 through § 23.1047, including the appropriate speed variation with altitude; and
(ii) To establish the speed for best rate of climb (or for minimum descent, as appropriate) that, regardless of the speed used in demonstrating compliance with climb and cooling requirements, is required for presentation in the AFM in accordance with § 23.1587(c)(5).
(3) WAT Charts. For airplanes with an MTOW greater than 6,000 pounds and all turbine-powered airplanes, a WAT chart is an acceptable means to meet the performance requirements. See discussion in paragraph 8 of this AC.
Regulation 23.67(a)(1) 23.67(a)(2) 23.67(b)(1) 23.67(b)(2) 23.67(c)(1) 23.67(c)(2) 23.67(c)(3) 23.67(c)(4) Category Normal, Utility, and Aerobatic Commuter Engine Type and Airplane Weight Recip 6000 lbs or less Recips > 6000 lbs and Turbines VSO (kts) >61 ≤61 Power On Operative Engine ≤ MCP ≤MCP MTOP ≤MCP MTOP MTOP ≤MCP MTOP Configuration Flap and gear retracted Flap and gear retracted Take-off flap, gear retracted Flap and gear retracted Take-off flap, gear extended Take-off flap, gear retracted Flap and gear retracted Approach flap*, gear retracted Propeller Position on Inop Engine Minimum drag Minimum drag Minimum drag Minimum drag Position it automatically and rapidly assumes Position it automatically and rapidly assumes Minimum drag Minimum drag Attitude Wings level Climb Speed ≥1.2VS1 ≥1.2VS1 Equal to that achieved at 50ft demonstrating
23.53 ≥1.2VS1 V2 V2 ≥1.2VS1 As in procedures but ≥1.5VS1 Altitude (ft) 5000 5000 400 1500 Take-off surface 400 1500 400 Required Climb Gradient (%) ≥1.5 No minimum but must determine steady climb/descent gradient Measurably positive ≥0.75 Measurably positive ≥2 ≥1.2 ≥2.1
* Approach position(s) in which VS1 does not exceed 110% of the VS1 for the related allengines-operating landing positions
TABLE 27-1 - WAT Chart 48