Par 6-152 Page 6-40 NOTE: Too long an exposure to the brush-on solution produces coatings that will powder and impair adhesion of applied paint finish/films.
(f) Observe the coating closely during the treatment for color changes, rinsed with cold running water when the desired condition/color is reached and air-dried. Preparation and use of test panels made of the same material and under the same conditions before starting the actual treating operation may be used as to determine the application time required to produce the required coating. A good coating is uniform in color/density, adheres well, and is free of loose powder.
l. Apply primer and top coat finish.
m. Remove masking and protective coverings.
6-153.–6-163. [RESERVED.]
Par 6-164 Page 6-41 SECTION 10. FERROUS METALS
6-164. GENERAL. One of the most familiar kinds of corrosion is red iron rust. Red iron rust results from atmospheric oxidation of steel surfaces. Some metal oxides protect the underlying base metal, but red rust is not a protective coating. Its presence actually promotes additional attack by attracting moisture from the air and acts as a catalyst to promote additional corrosion.
a. Red rust first shows on bolt heads, holddown nuts, and other unprotected aircraft hardware. Red rust will often occur under nameplates that are secured to steel parts. Its presence in these areas is generally not dangerous. It has no immediate effect on the structural strength of any major components. However, it shows a general lack of maintenance and may indicate attack in more critical areas.
b. When paint failures occur or mechanical damage exposes highly stressed steel surfaces to the atmosphere, even the smallest amount of rusting is potentially dangerous and should be removed immediately.
6-165. SPECIAL TREATMENT OF HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL. (High-strength steels heat-treated above Rockwell C40, 180,000 psi tensile strength.) Any corrosion on the surface of a highly stressed steel part is potentially dangerous, and the careful removal of corrosion products is mandatory. Surface scratches or change in surface structure from overheating can cause sudden failure of these parts. The removal of corrosion products is required and will be performed carefully and completely.
a. Acceptable methods include careful use of mild abrasive mats, cloths, and papers, such as fine grit aluminum oxide, metallic wool, or fine buffing compounds.
b. Undesirable methods include the use of any power tool because the danger of local overheating and the formation of notches that could lead to failure. The use of chemical corrosion removers is prohibited, without engineering authorization, because high-strength steel parts are subject to hydrogen embrittlement.
6-166. SPECIAL TREATMENT OF STAINLESS STEEL. Stainless steels are of two general types: magnetic and nonmagnetic.
a. Magnetic steels are of the ferritic or martensitic types and are identified by numbers in the 400 series. Corrosion often occurs on 400-series stainless steels, and treatment is the same as specified in high-strength steels. (See paragraph 6-165.)
b. Nonmagnetic stainless steels are of the austenitic type and are identified by numbers in the 300 series. They are much more corrosion resistant than the 400-series steels, particularly in a marine environment.
(1) Austenitic steels develop corrosion resistance by an oxide film, which should not be removed even though the surface is discolored. The original oxide film is normally formed at time of fabrication by passivation. If this film is broken accidentally or by abrasion, it may not restore itself without repassivation.
Par 6-166 Page 6-42
(2) If any deterioration or corrosion does occur on austenitic steels, and the structural integrity or serviceability of the part is affected, it will be necessary to remove the part.
6-167. EXAMPLE OF REMOVING CORROSION FROM FERROUS METALS. If possible, corroded steel parts should be removed from the aircraft. When impractical to remove the part, follow the procedure below.
a. Prepare the area for rework.
b. Positively identify the metal as steel and establish its heat-treated value.
c. Clean the area and strip paint if required.
NOTE: Use of acid-based strippers, chemical removers, or chemical conversion coatings is not permitted on steel parts without engineering authorization.
d. Determine extent of corrosion damage.
e. Remove residual corrosion by hand sanding with mild abrasive mats, cloths, and papers, such as fine aluminum oxide grit.
f. Remove heavy deposits of corrosion products by approved mechanical methods for that particular form of steel and/or stainless steel.
g. Inspect the area for remaining corrosion. Repeat procedure if any corrosion remains and the structural integrity of the part is not in danger, and the part meets the rework limits established by the manufacturer or FAA-authorized DER.
h. Fair depressions using a blend ratio of 20:1. Clean area using 240-grit paper. Smooth area with 300-grit paper and give final polish with 400-grit paper.
i. Determine depth of faired depression to ensure that rework limits have not been exceeded.
j. Clean reworked area with dry cleaning solvent. Do not use kerosene.
k. Apply protective finish or specific organic finish as required.
NOTE: Steel surfaces are highly reactive immediately following corrosion removal; consequently, primer coats should be applied within 1 hour after sanding.
l. Remove masking and protective coverings.
6-168.–6-178. [RESERVED.]
Par 6-179 Page 6-43 SECTION 11. OTHER METALS AND ALLOYS
6-179. NOBLE METAL COATINGS CLEANUP AND RESTORATION. Silver, platinum, and gold finishes are used in aircraft assemblies because of their resistance to ordinary surface attack and their improved electrical or heat conductivity. Silver-plated electrodes can be cleaned of brown or black sulfide tarnish by placing them in contact with a piece of magnesium sheet stock while immersed in a warm water solution of common table salt mixed with baking soda, or by using a fine grade abrasive mat or pencil eraser followed by solvent cleaning. If assemblies are involved, careful drying and complete displacement of water is necessary. In general, cleaning of gold or platinum coatings is not recommended in the field.
6-180. COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS are relatively corrosion resistant, and attack on such components will usually be limited to staining and tarnish. Such change in surface condition is not dangerous and should ordinarily have no effect on the function of the part.
However, if it is necessary to remove such staining, a chromic acid solution of 8–24 ounces per gallon of water containing a small amount of battery electrolyte (not to exceed 50 drops per gallon) is an effective brightening bath. Staining may also be removed using a fine grade abrasive mat or pencil eraser followed by solvent cleaning.
a. Immerse the stained part in the cold solution. Surfaces can also be treated in place by applying the solution to the stained surface with a small brush.
b. Avoid any entrapment of the solution after treatment. Clean the part thoroughly following treatment with all residual solution removed.
c. Serious copper corrosion is evident by the accumulation of green-to-blue copper salts on the corroded part. Remove these products mechanically using a stiff bristle brush, brass wire brush, 400-grit abrasive paper, or bead blast with glass beads (Specification MIL-G-9954, size 13). Air pressure when blasting should be 20–30 psi for direct pressure machines. Do not bead blast braided copper flexible lines. Reapply a surface coating over the reworked area.
Chromic acid treatment will tend to remove the residual corrosion products.
WARNING: Brushing, sanding, and abrasive blasting of copper and copper alloys can be dangerous due to the creation of toxic airborne particles. Take necessary precautions to ensure safety.
6-181. TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS. Titanium and titanium alloys are highly corrosion resistant because an oxide film forms on their surfaces upon contact with air.
a. When titanium is heated, different oxides having different colors form on the surface.
A blue oxide coating will form at 700–800 °F, a purple oxide at 800–950 °F, and a gray or black oxide at 1,000 °F or higher. These coatings are protective discolorations and should not be removed.
b. Corrosive attack on titanium surfaces is difficult to detect. It may show deterioration from the presence of salt deposits and metal impurities at elevated temperatures, so periodic removal of surface deposits is required. However, if corrosion develops on titanium, it usually occurs as pitting. Acceptable methods for corrosion removal are:
Par 6-181 Page 6-44
(1) Stainless steel wool or hand brush.
(2) Abrasive mats, cloths, and papers with either aluminum oxide or silicon carbide grit.
(3) Dry abrasive blasting using glass beads (Specification MIL-G-9954), sizes 10–13, or aluminum oxide (Specification A-A-59316, type I, grade A or B) at a blast pressure of 40–50 psi (if using suction equipment, use 50 percent higher pressure).
WARNING: Dry abrasive blasting of titanium alloys creates sparking.
Ensure that hazardous concentrations of flammable vapors are not present.
(4) Hand polish with aluminum polish and soft cloth.
c. Titanium surfaces are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement that can induce stress corrosion and associated pitting. Therefore, chemicals such as fire-resistant hydraulic fluids must be controlled. Chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents and chemical corrosion removers are prohibited from use on titanium and titanium alloys.
6-182.–6-192. [RESERVED.]
Par 6-193 Page 6-45 SECTION 12. PLATED PARTS
6-193. CHROMIUM AND NICKEL-PLATED PARTS. Nickel and chromium platings are used extensively as protective and wear-resistant coatings over high-strength steel parts (landing gear journals, shock strut pistons, etc.). Chromium and nickel plate provide protection by forming a somewhat impervious physical coat over the underlying base metal. When breaks occur in the surface, the protection is destroyed.
a. The amount of reworking that can be performed on chromium and nickel-plated components is limited.
b. The rework should consist of light buffing to remove corrosion products and produce the required smoothness. The buffing should not take the plating below the minimum allowable thickness.
c. Whenever a chromium or nickel-plated component requires buffing, coat the area with a corrosion-preventive compound, if possible.
d. When buffing exceeds the minimum thickness of the plating, or the base metal has sustained corrosive attack, the component should be removed and replaced.
e. The removed component can be restored to serviceable condition by having the old plating completely stripped and replated in accordance with acceptable methods and specifications.
6-194. CADMIUM AND ZINC-PLATED PARTS. Cadmium plating is used extensively in aircraft construction as a protective finish over both steel and copper alloys. Protection is provided by a sacrificial process in which the cadmium is attacked rather than the underlying base material. Properly functioning cadmium surface coatings may show mottling, ranging from white to brown to black spots on their surfaces. These show the sacrificial protection being offered by the cadmium coat, and under no condition should such spotting be removed merely for appearance’ sake. In fact, cadmium will continue to protect even when actual breaks in the coating develop and bare steel or exposed copper surfaces appear.
a. When the breakdown of the cadmium plating occurs and the initial appearance of corrosion products on the base metal develops, some mechanical cleaning of the area may be necessary but shall be limited to removal of the corrosion products from the underlying base material.
b. Under no condition should such a coating be cleaned with a wire brush. If protection is needed, a touchup with primer or a temporary preservative coating should be applied.
Restoration of the plate coating cannot be done in the field.
c. Zinc coatings offer protection in an identical manner to cadmium, and the corrective treatment for failure is generally the same as for cadmium-plated parts. However, the amount of zinc on aircraft structures is very limited and usually does not present a maintenance problem.
6-195–6-205. [RESERVED.]
Par 6-206 Page 6-46 SECTION 13. CORROSION PROOFING OF LAND PLANES CONVERTED TO
SEAPLANES
6-206. GENERAL. A special problem is encountered in the conversion of land planes to seaplanes. In general, land planes do not receive corrosion proofing to the same extent as do seaplanes. Corrosion-proofing standards for land planes converted to seaplanes are divided into two classes: necessary minimum precautions and recommended precautions. Regardless of such precautions, it is imperative that the exterior surfaces of seaplanes be washed with clear freshwater immediately following extended water operation, or at least once a day when operated in salty or brackish water. Wash interior surfaces of seaplanes exposed to spray, taking care to prevent damage to electrical circuits or other items subject to injury.
6-207. NECESSARY MINIMUM PRECAUTIONS. The following procedures are considered the minimum to safeguard the airworthiness of converted aircraft and are not in themselves intended to maintain airworthiness for an indefinite period.
a. Unless already protected, treat exposed fittings or fittings that can be reached through inspection openings with two coats of zinc-chromate primer, paralketone, non-water-soluble heavy grease, or comparable materials. This applies to items such as wing-root fittings, wing-strut fittings, control-surface hinges, horns, mating edges of fittings, and attached bolts.
b. Coat nonstainless control cables with grease, paralketone, or other comparable protective coating, if not replaced with corrosion-resistant cables.
c. Inspect all accessible sections of aircraft structure. Clean structural parts showing corrosion and refinish if corrosion attack is superficial. If a part is severely corroded, replace with an adequately corrosion-proofed part.
6-208. RECOMMENDED PRECAUTIONS. Recommended precautions are those which are suggested as a means of maintaining such aircraft in condition for safe operation over extended periods.
a. Provide additional inspection openings to assist in detecting corrosion. Experience has shown openings to allow inspection of the lower and rearward portion of the fuselage to be particularly desirable.
b. Incorporate additional provisions for free drainage and ventilation of all interiors to prevent collection of moisture (scoop-type marine drain grommets).
c. Protect the interior of structural steel tubing. This may be done by air and watertight sealing or by flushing with hot linseed oil and plugging the openings. Inspect tubing for missing sealing screws, presence of entrapped water, local corrosion around sealing screws, welded clusters, and bolted fittings, which may be indicative of entrapped moisture.
d. Slit the fabric of fabric-covered aircraft longitudinally on the bottom of the fuselage and tail structure for access to these sections. Coat the lower structural members with zinc-chromate primer (two coats); follow with a coat of dope-proof paint or wrap with cellophane tape and
Par 6-208 Page 6-47 rejoin the fabric. This precaution is advisable within a few months after start of operation as a seaplane.
e. Spray the interior of metal-covered wings and fuselages with an adherent corrosion inhibitor.
f. Place bags of potassium or sodium dichromate in the bottom of floats and boat hulls to inhibit corrosion.
g. Prevent the entry of water by sealing, as completely as possible, all openings in wings, fuselage, control-surface members, openings for control cables, tail-wheel wells, etc.
6-209.–6-219. [RESERVED.]
Par 6-220 Page 6-48 SECTION 14. HANDLING AND CARE OF AIRCRAFT RECOVERED FROM WATER
IMMERSION
6-220. GENERAL. Aircraft recovered from partial or total immersion in standing water or flash floods require an in-depth inspection and cleaning of both the exterior and interior areas. Water immersion increases the probability of corrosive attack, removes lubricants, deteriorates aircraft materials, and destroys electrical and avionics components.
a. Seawater, because of salt content, is more corrosive than freshwater. However, freshwater may also contain varying amounts of salt, and, as drying occurs, the salt concentration is increased and corrosive attack accelerated.
b. Prompt action is the most important factor following recovery of an aircraft from water immersion. Components of the aircraft which have been immersed, such as the powerplant, accessories, airframe sections, actuating mechanisms, screws, bearings, working surfaces, fuel and oil systems, wiring, radios, and radar, should be disassembled, as necessary, and the contaminants completely removed.
6-221. INITIAL FRESHWATER OR DETERGENT WASH. As soon as possible after the aircraft is recovered from water immersion, thoroughly wash all internal and external areas of the aircraft using a water/detergent solution as follows:
a. Mix liquid detergent (MIL-D-16791, type I) and isopropyl alcohol (TT-I-735) in ratio of 8 parts detergent to 20 parts alcohol. Add the detergent/alcohol mixture to 72 parts tapwater and mix thoroughly. For use, add one part of the preceding concentrate to nine parts tapwater (warm water if available) and mix thoroughly.
b. If the above specified detergent/alcohol materials are not available, use water-emulsion cleaning compound (A-A-59921). Add one part compound to nine parts water. If the A-A-59921 cleaning compound is not available, use any available mild household detergent solution with fresh tapwater.
6-222. RECIPROCATING ENGINES AND PROPELLERS. Remove the propeller from the engine and the engine from the aircraft. The exterior of the engine and propeller should be washed with steam, or freshwater, preferably hot.
a. Major accessories, engine parts, etc., should be removed and all surfaces flushed with freshwater, preferably hot. If facilities are available, immerse the removed parts, time permitting, in hot water or hot oil, 180 °F, for a short time. Soft water is preferred. Change the water frequently. All parts must be completely dried by air blast or other means. If no heat-drying facility is available, wipe the cleaned parts with suitable drying cloths.
b. The constant-speed propeller mechanism should be disassembled, as required, to permit complete decontamination. Clean parts with steam or freshwater, preferably hot. Dry the cleaned parts in an oven, but if a heat-drying facility is not available, wipe the cleaned parts with suitable drying cloths.
Par 6-223 Page 6-49
6-223. AIRFRAME. The salvable components of the fuselage, wings, empennage, seaplane and amphibian hulls and floats, and movable surfaces should be processed as follows:
a. The fabric from fabric-covered surfaces should be removed and replaced.
b. Clean the aircraft interior and exterior using steam under pressure with steam cleaning compound. Direct the steam into all seams and crevices where corrosive water may have penetrated. Avoid steam cleaning electrical equipment, such as terminal boards and relays.
c. Areas that have been steam cleaned should be rinsed immediately with either hot or cold freshwater.
d. Touch up all scratches and scars on painted surfaces using zinc-chromate primer or preservative.
e. Undrained hollow spaces or fluid entrapment areas should be provided temporary draining facilities by drilling out rivets at the lowest point. Install new rivets after drainage.
f. Remove and replace all leather, fabric upholstery, and insulation. Plastic or rubber foam that cannot be cleaned of all corrosive water must be replaced.
g. All drainplugs or drivescrews in tubular structures should be removed and the structure blown out with compressed air. If water has reached the tubular interiors, carefully flush with hot freshwater and blow out water with compressed air. Roll the structure as necessary to remove water from pockets. Fill the tubes with hot linseed oil, approximately 180 °F, drain oil, and replace drainplugs or drivescrews.
h. Clean sealed wood, metallic, and other nonmetallic areas, excluding acrylic plastics, with warm water. Replace wood, metalite, and other porous materials exposed to water immersion, unless surfaces are adequately sealed to prevent penetration by water. Virtually all solvents and phenolic-type cleaning agents are detrimental to acrylics and will either soften the plastic or cause crazing.
i. Remove instruments and radios and applicable cables and plumbing, and repair and inspect as necessary.
6-224.–6-234. [RESERVED.]
Par 7-1 Page 7-1 CHAPTER 7. AIRCRAFT HARDWARE, CONTROL CABLES, AND TURNBUCKLES SECTION 1. RIVETS
7-1. GENERAL.
a. Standard solid-shank rivets and the universal head rivets (AN470) are used in aircraft construction in both interior and exterior locations. All protruding head rivets may be replaced by MS20470 (supersedes AN470) rivets. This has been adopted as the standard for protruding head rivets in the United States.
b. Roundhead rivets (AN430) are used in the interior of aircraft except where clearance is required for adjacent members.
c. Flathead rivets (AN442) are used in the interior of the aircraft where interference of adjacent members does not permit the use of roundhead rivets.
d. Brazier head rivets (AN455 and AN456) are used on the exterior surfaces of aircraft where flush riveting is not essential.
e. Countersunk head rivets MS20426 (supersedes AN426 100-degree) are used on the exterior surfaces of aircraft to provide a smooth aerodynamic surface, and in other applications where a smooth finish is desired. The 100-degree countersunk head has been adopted as the standard in the United States. Refer to MIL-HDBK-5, Department of Defense Handbook:
Metallic Materials and Elements for Aerospace Vehicle Structures, or MMPDS-10, and USAF/Navy T.O. 1-1A-8, Structural Hardware.
f. Typical rivet types are shown in Table 7-10.
7-2. MATERIAL APPLICATIONS.
a. Rivets made with 2117-T4 are the most commonly used rivets in aluminum alloy structures. The main advantage of 2117-T4 is that it may be used in the condition received without further treatment.
b. The 2017-T3, 2017-T31, and 2024-T4 rivets are used in aluminum alloy structures where strength higher than that of the 2117-T4 rivet is needed. Refer to MIL-HDBK-5 or MMPDS-10 for differences between the types of rivets specified here.
c. The 1100 rivets of pure aluminum are used for riveting nonstructural parts fabricated from the softer aluminum alloys, such as 1100, 3003, and 5052.
d. When riveting magnesium alloy structures, 5056 rivets are used exclusively due to their corrosion-resistant qualities in combination with the magnesium alloys.
e. Mild steel rivets are used primarily in riveting steel parts. Do not use galvanized rivets on steel parts subjected to high heat.
Par 7-2 Page 7-2
f. Corrosion-resistant steel rivets are used primarily in riveting corrosion-resistant steel parts such as firewalls, exhaust stack bracket attachments, and similar structures.
g. Monel rivets are used in special cases for riveting high-nickel steel alloys and nickel alloys. They may be used interchangeably with stainless steel rivets as they are more easily driven. However, it is preferable to use stainless steel rivets in stainless steel parts.
h. Copper rivets are used for riveting copper alloys, leather, and other nonmetallic materials. This rivet has only limited usage in aircraft.
i. Hi-Shear rivets are sometimes used in connections where the shearing loads are the primary design consideration. Its use is restricted to such connections. It should be noted that Hi-Shear rivets are not to be used for the installation of control surface hinges and hinge brackets. Do not paint the rivets before assembly, even where dissimilar metals are being joined.
However, it is advisable to touch up each end of the driven rivet with primer to allow the later application of the general airplane finish.
j. Blind rivets in the NASM20600 through NASM20603 series rivets and the mechanically-locked stem NAS1398, 1399, 1738, and 1739 rivets sometimes may be substituted for solid rivets. They should not be used where the looseness or failure of a few rivets will impair the airworthiness of the aircraft. Design allowable for blind rivets are specified in MIL-HDBK-5 or MMPDS-10. Specific structural applications are outlined in NASM33522. Nonstructural applications for such blind rivets as NASM20604 and NASM20605 are contained in NASM33557.
CAUTION: For sheet metal repairs to airframe, the use of blind rivets must be authorized by the airframe manufacturer or approved by a representative of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
NOTE: For more information on blind rivets, see Chapter 4, subparagraph 4-57f.
7-3.–7-13. [RESERVED.]