FIGURE 2-2. TYPICAL METHODS OF ATTACHING FABRIC
USE A T-PIN THROUGH THE FABRIC
STRAPS TO TEMPORARILY SECURE
THE FABRIC COVERING AND REMOVE AS HAND SEWN SEAM PROGRESSES MINIMUM 4 STITCHES PER INCH.
TOP COVER
- FORMER (A) ATTACHING FABRIC AT AILERON CUTOUT
TOP COVER, TOP COVER *FINISH WITH TAPE SPACING 1-1/4.
OR CLOSER
TEMPORARY TACKS MAY BE USED TO SECURE FABRIC IN POSITION FOR HAND- SEWN SEAMS OVER A WOOD STRUCTURE. PERMANENT TACKS MAY BE USED
TO SECURE FABRIC AT WING BUTT STRUCTURES IN LIEU OF A HAND-SEWN
SEAM AND SHOULD BE OF THE APPROPRIATE LENGTH AND GAUGE, AND MADE OF CORROSION RESISTANT STEEL OR BRASS.
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(3) After hand sewing is complete, any temporary tacks used to secure the fabric over wood structures may be removed.
(4) Cover a sewn spanwise seam on a wing’s leading edge with a minimum 4-inch wide pinked-edged surface tape with the tape centered on the seam.
(5) Cover a spanwise-sewn seam at the wing trailing edge with pinked-edge surface tape that is at least 3 inches wide. For aircraft with never exceed speeds in excess of 200 miles per hour (mph), cut V notches at least 1 inch in depth and 1/4 inch in width in both edges of the surface tape when used to cover spanwise seams on trailing edges of control surfaces. Space notches at intervals not exceeding 6 inches. On tape less than 3 inches wide, the notches should be 1/3 the tape width. In the event the surface tape begins to separate because of poor adhesion or other causes, the tape will tear at a notched section, thus preventing progressive loosening of the entire length of the tape which could seriously affect the controllability of the aircraft. A loose tape acts as a trim tab only on a movable surface. It becomes a spoiler on a fixed surface and has no effect at the trailing edge other than drag.
(6) Make spanwise-sewn seams on the wing’s upper or lower surfaces in a manner that will minimize any protrusions. Cover the seams with finishing tape at least 3 inches wide, centering the tape on the seam.
(7) Sewn seams parallel to the line of flight (chordwise) may be located over ribs.
However, careful attention must be given to avoid damage to the seam threads by rib lace needles, screws, rivets, or wire clips that are used to attach the fabric to the rib. Cover chordwise seams with a finishing tape at least 3 inches wide with the tape centered on the seam.
b. Doped Seams.
(1) For an overlapped and doped spanwise seam on a wing’s leading edge, overlap the fabric at least 4 inches and cover with finishing tape at least 4 inches wide, with the tape centered at the outside edge of the overlap seam.
(2) For an overlapped and doped spanwise seam at the trailing edge, lap the fabric at least 3 inches and cover with pinked-edge surface tape at least 4 inches wide, with the tape centered on the outside edge of the overlap seam.
(3) For an overlapped and doped seam on wingtips, wing butts, perimeters of wing control surfaces, perimeters of empennage surfaces, and all fuselage areas, overlap the fabric 2 inches and cover with a finishing tape that is at least 3 inches wide, centered on the outside edge of the overlap seam.
(4) For an overlapped and doped seam on a wing’s leading edge, on aircraft with a never-exceed velocity (Vne) speed up to and including 150 mph, overlap the fabric 2 inches and cover with a finishing tape that is at least 3 inches wide, with the tape centered on the outside edge of the overlap seam.
(5) For an overlapped and doped seam on the perimeter of a wing (except a leading edge), perimeters of wing control surfaces, perimeters of empennage surfaces, and all areas of a
Par 2-7 Page 2-10 fuselage, on aircraft with a Vne speed up to and including 150 mph, overlap the fabric 1 inch and cover with a finishing tape that is at least 3 inches wide, centered on the outside edge of the overlap seam.
2-8. COVERING METHODS. The method of fabric attachment should be identical, as far as strength and reliability are concerned, to the method used by the manufacturer of the airplane being recovered or repaired. Carefully remove the old fabric from the airframe, noting the location of inspection covers, drain grommets, and method of attachment. Cotton or linen fabric may be applied so that either the warp or fill-threads are parallel to the line of flight. Either the envelope method or blanket method of covering is acceptable.
a. The Envelope Method. A wing envelope may be developed by two methods. Machine sew together, side by side multiple fabric sections, cut to reach chordwise around the wing, starting and ending at the trailing edge with a minimum of 1 inch excess length. The sewn envelope is then positioned around the wing and secured with closely spaced T-Head pins at the wingtip and trailing edge. Excess material may then be trimmed. Carefully remove the envelope and complete by machine sewing at the wingtip and along the trailing edge, except where the geometry of the wing (aileron and flap cut out) would prevent the sewn envelope from being reinstalled. After reinstalling the envelope, the un-sewn sections and butt end are then closed by hand-sewn or overlapped and doped seams in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed. (See subparagraph 2-7b.)
(1) An alternative method, when fabric of sufficient width is available, is to sew together, side-by-side, two sections of fabric, placing the seams spanwise on the leading edge, then fit and sew the wingtip and trailing edge in the same manner as the multiple piece chordwise envelope.
(2) An envelope may be developed for the fuselage in the same manner, with a final closing along a longeron by hand-sewn or overlapped and doped seams in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed.
b. The Blanket Method. A blanket is developed by sewing together, side-by-side, multiple sections of fabric with the seams chordwise or two wide sections of fabric, side-by-side, placing the seam spanwise on the leading edge, the same as an envelope. Close the three remaining sides with a hand-sewn seam or overlapped and doped seams in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed. Small components may be covered by wrapping one piece of fabric over a straight leading or trailing edge, then closing three sides with handstitched or overlapped and doped seams in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed.
NOTE: All overlapped and doped seams will be made only over underlying supporting structures extending the full width of the seam.
c. Machine-Sewn Alternate. An alternate to machine-sewn seams on a wing envelope or blanket is to use two sections of wide fabric spanwise. Attach the fabric with overlapped and doped seams at the leading and trailing edge, wingtip and wing butt, in accordance with the aircraft Vne speeds. (See subparagraph 2-7b.) Smaller components may be covered in the same manner. The fuselage may be covered with multiple fabric sections with overlapped and doped
Par 2-8 Page 2-11 seams on the longerons or other wide fabric-forming structures in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed. (See subparagraph 2-7b.)
d. Holes in Fabric. Never cut any holes in the fabric for inspection panels, spar fittings, or drain grommets; or attach the fabric to the airframe with rib lacing screws, rivets, clips, or rib stitch cord until the fabric has been semi-tauted and stabilized with several coats of dope.
2-9. REINFORCING TAPE.
a. Reinforcing tape should be securely bonded to the fabric surface with dope before cord lacing or installation of hardware. Where multiple attachments are in close proximity, such as on a wing rib, continuous reinforcing tape should be installed, extending at least 1 inch past the last attachment at each end. Random or wide spacing, such as on fuselage stringers or empennage surfaces, may be reinforced with 2-inch lengths of reinforcing tape centered on the attachment location.
b. Reinforcing tapes should be of the appropriate width for hardware attachment such as screws, rivets, wire clips, etc., which pierce the center of the tape. Reinforcing tape under cord lacing should be the same width as the rib to which the fabric is laced and may be comprised of multiple widths positioned side-by-side to achieve the required width.
c. When the aircraft Vne speed is over 250 mph, anti-tear strips, cut from the same quality fabric used to cover the aircraft, are recommended for use under reinforcing tape on the entire top surface of the wing and on the portion of the wing’s bottom surface in the propeller slipstream. The propeller slipstream is considered to be the propeller diameter plus one outboard rib. The anti-tear strip should be installed completely around the wing, beginning and ending at the trailing edge in the propeller slipstream, and installed from the trailing edge over the leading edge and back under to the front spar on the balance of the ribs. Anti-tear strips should extend 1/2 inch past the wing rib cap edges and be thoroughly bonded to the fabric with dope before the reinforcing tape is installed. (See Figure 2-3.)
FIGURE 2-3. EXPLODED SIDE VIEW OF RIB
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2-10. LACING.
a. Fabric should be attached to aircraft components to prevent ballooning due to aerodynamic forces, in the identical manner and locations as used by the original aircraft manufacturer. Any deviation from the original method(s) of attachment, such as screws, rivets, wire clips, lacing cord, etc., are considered a major alteration and in conflict with the aircraft type design data. Obtain FAA approval on any deviation.
NOTE: When the type of rib lace knot used by the original aircraft manufacturer is not known, the modified seine knot shown in Figure 2-4 through 2-9c will be used.
FIGURE 2-4. STANDARD EXTERNAL MODIFIED SEINE KNOT USED FOR SINGLE
AND DOUBLE RIB LACING
FIGURE 2-5. STARTING STITCH FOR RIB LACING
SECOND STITCH OF STANDARD LACING (SINGLE (SHOWN) OR DOUBLE)
HALF HITCH AROUND STITCH LOOPS C
WITH LEAD A BEFORE PROCEEDING TO SECOND STITCH.
LOCK SQUARE KNOT WITH HALF HITCH LEAD A / AROUND STITCH LOOPS C WITH END B.
CUT OFF SURPLUS OF END B.
AFT -FINISHED FIRST KNOT.
CAPSTRIP 2- TIE SQUARE KNOT
ON CAPSTRIP WITH LEAD A AND END B.
REINFORCING TAPE (same width as the rib).
LEAD A
S - END B
STITCH LOOPS C
CAPSTRIP START OF
FIRST KNOT S = NORMAL STITCH SPACING
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTS LACING AROUND ENTIRE RIB.
\ TIE SQUARE KNOT ON FIRST STEP OF S/2 CENTER OF CAPSTRIP
STARTING STITCH
LEADING EDGE FAIRING Par 2-10 Page 2-13
FIGURE 2-6. STANDARD SINGLE-LOOP LACING Modified Seine Knot Single Loop lacing Aft
- Reinforcing Tape (should be same with as the rib) Capstrip Capstrip Reinforcing tape (Same width as Rib Cap) Schematic represents lacing around entire rib.
Starting stitch S = Normal stitch spacing Wing Leading Edge Fairing Par 2-10 Page 2-14
FIGURE 2-7. STANDARD KNOT FOR DOUBLE-LOOP LACING Pull No. 4
COMPLETED KNOT Edge of capstrip Pull No. 4 - 10 Ib. - to complete knot Edge of capstrip Pull No. 3 pull snug OPERATION NO. 2
- Direction of lacing Pull No. 2 — 5 lb.
to tighten stitch Stitch loops around capstrip Pull No. 1 - 10 b. From preceding to tighten loops stitch OPERATION NO. 1 Par 2-10 Page 2-15
FIGURE 2-8. STANDARD DOUBLE-LOOP LACING (OPTIONAL)
- Modified Seine Knot Double loop lacing Aft
• Reinforcing Tape (Same width as rib) Capstrip Capsinp S Reinforcing tape (Same width as Rib Cap) Schematic represents lacing around entire rib.
S Starting stitch S = NORMAL STITCH SPACING Wing Leading Edge Fairing Par 2-10 Page 2-16
FIGURE 2-9a. ALTERNATE SEQUENCE TO TIE A MODIFIED SEINE KNOT FOR
RIB LACING Square Knot Half Hitch Step 1. Tie a square knot by passing the short Step 2. Secure the tight square knot with a end of the cord thru the fold-back loop, half hitch at each side.
as illustrated.
Step 3. Route the needle back thru the right hand hole and exit at the next pre-punched lacing location.
Par 2-10 Step 4. Route the needle back thru the exit hole and thru the opposite fabric surface leaving approximately a 3" loop around a finger on the top surface.
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FIGURE 2-9b. ALTERNATE SEQUENCE TO TIE A MODIFIED SEINE KNOT FOR
RIB LACING Step 5. As the needle is returned thru the top surface on the Step 6. The needle tip is routed under cord section "B" to opposite side of the rib cap the loop is rotated to hook and pull cord section "A" aft.
position cord section "A" to the forward side of the needle, then the needle is pulled thru.
Step 7. The needle tip is then routed over the top of cord Step 8. The needle tip is then routed over cord section "D" section "A" and under cord section "B." and passed thru the lacing while holding cord section "D" perpendicular to the surface to avoid cord entanglement.
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FIGURE 2-9c. ALTERNATE SEQUENCE TO TIE A MODIFIED SEINE KNOT FOR
RIB LACING Step 9. Pull cord section "D" perpendicular to the fabric surface to remove all slack in the cord back to the last rib lacing knot while working the loose knot to the right side. Do not pull cord section "E."
Half Hitch Par 2-10 Step 10. After all slack is removed by pulling cord section "D," switch hands and place a thumbnail on the loose knot formed on the right-hand side, then secure the knot by pulling firmly perpendicular to the fabric surface on cord section "E."
Step 11. After completing all lacing in the same sequence the end is secured with a half hitch after the modified seine knot. The knot is pulled to the inside by routing the needle thru the wing before cutting the cord to leave the end inside.
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