Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1. CFIT CHECKLIST Flight Safety Foundation CFIT Checklist Evaluate the Risk and Take Action Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) designed this controlled-flight-into-terrain (CFIT) risk-assessment safety tool as part of its international program to reduce CFIT accidents, which present the greatest risks to aircraft, crews and passengers. The FSF CFIT Checklist is likely to undergo further developments, but the Foundation believes that the checklist is sufficiently developed to warrant distribution to the worldwide aviation community.
Use the checklist to evaluate specific flight operations and to enhance pilot awareness of the CFIT risk. The checklist is divided into three parts. In each part, numerical values are assigned to a variety of factors that the pilot/operator will use to score his/her own situation and to calculate a numerical total.
In Part I: CFIT Risk Assessment, the level of CFIT risk is calculated for each flight, sector or leg. In Part II:
CFIT Risk-reduction Factors, Company Culture, Flight Standards, Hazard Awareness and Training, and Aircraft Equipment are factors, which are calculated in separate sections. In Part III: Your CFIT Risk, the totals of the four sections in Part II are combined into a single value (a positive number) and compared with the total (a negative number) in Part l: CFIT Risk Assessment to determine your CFIT Risk Score. To score the checklist, use a nonpermanent marker (do not use a ballpoint pen or pencil) and erase with a soft cloth.
Part I: CFIT Risk Assessment Section 1 - Destination CFIT Risk Factors Value Score Airport and Approach Control Capabilities:
ATC approach radar with MSAWS ..................................................................................................... 0 _____ ATC minimum radar vectoring charts ................................................................................................. 0 _____ ATC radar only ................................................................................................................................. -10 _____ ATC radar coverage limited by terrain masking .............................................................................. -15 _____ No radar coverage available (out of service/not installed) ............................................................... -30 _____ No ATC service ................................................................................................................................ -30 _____ Expected Approach:
Airport located in or near mountainous terrain ................................................................................. -20 _____ ILS ....................................................................................................................................................... 0 _____ VOR/DME ........................................................................................................................................ -15 _____ Nonprecision approach with the approach slope from the FAF to the airport TD shallower than 2 ¾ degrees ................................................................................ -20 _____ NDB ................................................................................................................................................ -30 _____ Visual night “black-hole” approach ................................................................................................. -30 _____ Runway Lighting:
Complete approach lighting system .................................................................................................... 0 _____ Limited lighting system .................................................................................................................... -30 _____ Controller/Pilot Language Skills:
Controllers and pilots speak different primary languages ................................................................ -20 _____ Controllers’ spoken English or ICAO phraseology poor ................................................................. -20 _____ Pilots’ spoken English poor .............................................................................................................. -20 _____ Departure:
No published departure procedure ................................................................................................... -10 _____ Destination CFIT Risk Factors Total (-) _____
Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1. CFIT CHECKLIST – CONTINUED Section 2 – Risk Multiplier Value Score Your Company’s Type of Operation (select only one value):
Scheduled ......................................................................................................................................... 1.0 _____ Nonscheduled ................................................................................................................................... 1.2 _____ Corporate .......................................................................................................................................... 1.3 _____ Charter .............................................................................................................................................. 1.5 _____ Business owner/pilot ........................................................................................................................ 2.0 _____ Regional............................................................................................................................................ 2.0 _____ Freight .............................................................................................................................................. 2.5 _____ Domestic ........................................................................................................................................... 1.0 _____ International ...................................................................................................................................... 3.0 _____ Departure/Arrival Airport (select single highest applicable value):
Australia/New Zealand ..................................................................................................................... 1.0 _____ United States/Canada........................................................................................................................ 1.0 _____ Western Europe ................................................................................................................................ 1.3 _____ Middle East ....................................................................................................................................... 1.1 _____ Southeast Asia .................................................................................................................................. 3.0 _____ Euro-Asia (Eastern Europe and Commonwealth of Independent States) ........................................ 3.0 _____ South America/Caribbean. ............................................................................................................... 5.0 _____ Africa. ............................................................................................................................................... 8.0 _____ Weather/Night Conditions (select only one value):
Night — no moon ............................................................................................................................. 2.0 _____ IMC .................................................................................................................................................. 3.0 _____ Night and IMC. ................................................................................................................................. 5.0 _____ Crew (select only one value):
Single-pilot flight crew ..................................................................................................................... 1.5 _____ Flight crew duty day at maximum and ending with a night nonprecision approach ....................... 1.2 _____ Flight crew crosses five or more time zones ................................................................................... 1.2 _____ Third day of multiple time-zone crossings ...................................................................................... 1.2 _____ Add Multiplier Values to Calculate Risk Multiplier Total _____ Destination CFIT Risk Factors Total X Risk Multiplier Total = CFIT Risk Factors Total (-) _____ Part II: CFIT Risk-Reduction Factors Section 1 - Company Culture Value Score Corporate/company management:
Places safety before schedule ............................................................................................................ 20 _____ CEO signs off on flight operations manual ....................................................................................... 20 _____ Maintains a centralized safety function ............................................................................................ 20 _____ Fosters reporting of all CFIT incidents without threat of discipline ................................................. 20 _____ Fosters communication of hazards to others .................................................................................... 15 _____ Requires standards for IFR currency and CRM training .................................................................. 15 _____ Places no negative connotation on a diversion or missed approach ................................................. 20 _____ 115-130 points Tops in company culture 105-115 points Good, but not the best Company Culture Total (+) _____* 80-105 points Improvement needed Less than 80 points High CFIT risk
Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1. CFIT CHECKLIST – CONTINUED Section 2 - Flight Standards Value Score Specific procedures are written for:
Reviewing approach or departure procedures charts ......................................................................... 10 _____ Reviewing significant terrain along intended approach or departure course ..................................... 20 _____ Maximizing the use of ATC radar monitoring .................................................................................. 10 _____ Ensuring pilot(s) understand that ATC is using radar or radar coverage exists ................................ 20 _____ Altitude changes ................................................................................................................................ 10 _____ Ensuring checklist is complete before initiation of approach ............................................................ 10 _____ Abbreviated checklist for missed approach ....................................................................................... 10 _____ Briefing and observing MSA circles on approach charts as part of plate review .............................. 10 _____ Checking crossing altitudes at IAF positions .................................................................................... 10 _____ Checking crossing altitudes at FAF and glideslope centering ........................................................... 10 _____ Independent verification by PNF of minimum altitude during stepdown DME (VOR/DME or LOC/DME) approach .............................................................. 20 _____ Requiring approach/departure procedure charts with terrain in color, shaded contour formats ................................................................................................ 20 _____ Radio-altitude setting and light-aural (below MDA) for backup on approach .................................. 10 _____ Independent charts for both pilots, with adequate lighting and holders ............................................ 10 _____ Use of 500-foot altitude call and other enhanced procedures for NPA ............................................. 10 _____ Ensuring a sterile (free from distraction) cockpit, especially during IMC/night approach or departure ............................................................................................... 10 _____ Crew rest, duty times and outer considerations especially for multiple-time-zone operation ................................................................................................ 20 _____ Periodic third-party or independent audit of procedures ................................................................... 10 _____ Route and familiarization checks for new pilots Domestic ..................................................................................................................................... 10 _____ International ................................................................................................................................ 20 _____ Airport familiarization aids, such as audiovisual aids ....................................................................... 10 _____ First officer to fly night or IMC approaches and the captain to monitor the approach .................................................................................................................. 20 _____ Jump-seat pilot (or engineer or mechanic) to help monitor terrain clearance and the approach in IMC or night conditions ............................................................................. 20 _____ Insisting that you fly the way that you train ...................................................................................... 25 _____ 300-335 points Tops in CFIT flight standards 270-300 points Good, but not the best Flight Standards Total (+) _____* 200-270 points Improvement needed Less than 200 High CFIT risk Section 3 - Hazard Awareness and Training Value Score Your company reviews training with the training department or training contractor ....................... 10 _____ Your company’s pilots are reviewed annually about the following:
Flight standards operating procedures ........................................................................................ 20 _____ Reasons for and examples of how the procedures can detect a CFIT “trap” .............................. 30 _____ Recent and past CFIT incidents/accidents .................................................................................. 50 _____ Audiovisual aids to illustrate CFIT traps .................................................................................... 50 _____ Minimum altitude definitions for MORA, MOCA, MSA, MEA, etc. ........................................ 15 _____ You have a trained flight safety officer who rides the jump seat occasionally ................................. 25 _____ You have flight safety periodicals that describe and analyze CFIT incidents ................................... 10 _____ You have an incident/exceedance review and reporting program ..................................................... 20 _____ Your organization investigates every instance in which minimum terrain clearance has been compromised .................................................................................... 20 _____
Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1. CFIT CHECKLIST – CONTINUED You annually practice recoveries with GPWS in the simulator ........................................................ 40 _____ You train the way that you fly ........................................................................................................... 25 _____ 285-315 points Tops in CFIT training 250-285 points Good, but not the best Hazard Awareness and Training Total (+) _____* 190-250 points Improvement needed Less than 190 High CFIT risk Section 4 – Aircraft Equipment Aircraft includes: Value Score Radio altimeter with cockpit display of full 2,500-foot range – captain only ................................... 20 _____ Radio altimeter with cockpit display of full 2,500-foot range – copilot ............................................ 10 _____ First-generation GPWS ..................................................................................................................... 20 _____ Second-generation GPWS or better ................................................................................................... 30 _____ GPWS with all approved modifications, data tables and service bulletins to reduce false warnings ............................................................................................... 10 _____ Navigation display and FMS ............................................................................................................. 10 _____ Limited number of automated altitude callouts ................................................................................. 10 _____ Radio-altitude automated callouts for nonprecision approach (not heard on ILS approach) and procedure ................................................................ 10 _____ Preselected radio altitudes to provide automated callouts that would not be heard during normal nonprecision approach ......................................................... 10 _____ Barometric altitudes and radio altitudes to give automated “decision” or “minimums” callouts ............................................................................................ 10 _____ An automated excessive “bank angle” callout ................................................................................... 10 _____ Auto flight/vertical speed mode ....................................................................................................... -10 _____ Auto flight/vertical speed mode with no GPWS .............................................................................. -20 _____ GPS or other long-range navigation equipment to supplement NDB-only approach .................................................................................................................... 15 _____ Terrain-navigation display ................................................................................................................. 20 _____ Ground-mapping radar ...................................................................................................................... 10 _____ 175-195 points Excellent equipment to minimize CFIT risk 155-175 points Good, but not the best Aircraft Equipment Total (+) _____* 115-155 points Improvement needed Less than 115 High CFIT risk Company Culture ______ + Flight Standards ______ + Hazard Awareness and Training ______ + Aircraft Equipment = CFIT Risk-reduction Factors Total (+) ________ *If any section in Part II scores less than “Good,” a thorough review is warranted of that aspect of the company’s operation.
Part III: Your CFIT Risk Part I CFIT Risk Factors Total (-) ______+ Part II CFIT Risk-reduction Factors Total (+) _____ = CFIT Risk Score (±) ______ A negative CFIT Risk Score indicates a significant threat; review the sections in Part II and determine what changes and improvements can be made to reduce CFIT risk.
In the interest of aviation safety, this checklist may be reprinted in whole or in part, but credit must be given to Flight Safety Foundation. To request more information or to offer comments about the FSF CFIT Checklist, contact James M.. Burin, director of technical programs, Flight Safety Foundation, 601 Madison Street, Suite 300, Alexandria, VA 22314 U.S., Telephone: +1 (703) 739-6700 • Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708.
FSF CFIT Checklist © 1994 Flight Safety Foundation
Appendix 2 APPENDIX 2. AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL, EXCERPTS Excerpts from the Aeronautical Information Manual are reprinted below. They contain information that GA pilots should be aware of when operating at low altitude.
[Some additional editorial comments have been added to a few paragraphs to highlight certain CFIT risks or possible operating methods to reduce such risks. Aviation will always have an element of risk. A knowledgeable pilot will try to reduce these risks to an acceptable level. These additional comments are in italic and identified as AC Comments.] 7-6-3. Obstructions To Flight
a. General. Many structures exist that could significantly affect the safety of your flight when operating below 500 feet AGL, and particularly below 200 feet AGL. While 14 CFR Part 91.119 allows flight below 500 AGL when over sparsely populated areas or open water, such operations are very dangerous. At and below 200 feet AGL there are numerous power lines, antenna towers, etc., that are not marked and lighted as obstructions and; therefore, may not be seen in time to avoid a collision. Notices to Air Missions (NOTAM) are issued on those lighted structures experiencing temporary light outages.
However, some time may pass before the FAA is notified of these outages, and the NOTAM issued, thus pilot vigilance is imperative.
b. Antenna Towers. Extreme caution should be exercised when flying less than 2,000 feet AGL because of numerous skeletal structures, such as radio and television antenna towers, that exceed 1,000 feet AGL with some extending higher than 2,000 feet AGL. Most skeletal structures are supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see in good weather and can be invisible at dusk or during periods of reduced visibility. These wires can extend about 1,500 feet horizontally from a structure; therefore, all skeletal structures should be avoided horizontally by at least 2,000 feet. Additionally, new towers may not be on your current chart because the information was not received prior to the printing of the chart.
[Every pilot must remember that not every tower has to be published on aeronautical charts. Chart clutter may limit the printing of some towers. Other towers are not required to be listed because they are not tall enough. A builder may simply not report a new tower. Equally dangerous is a new tower’s position may be wrong. Because of these factors, pilots are cautioned to be particularly careful when operating at low altitude. The “see and avoid” rule becomes critical close to the ground. A lesson taken from the helicopter community is to fly overhead at a safe altitude and check the area for towers and hazards before descending to a lower altitude where a CFIT accident is likely to occur.] [AC Comment: In some cases, the information is published in the next Airport/Facility Directory’s Aeronautical Chart Bulletin section, but the pilot fails to make the necessary corrections to the chart.]
c. Overhead Wires. Overhead transmission and utility lines often span approaches to runways, natural flyways such as lakes, rivers, gorges, and canyons, and cross other landmarks pilots frequently follow such as highways, railroad tracks, etc. As with antenna towers, these high voltage/power lines or the supporting structures of these lines may not always be readily visible and the wires may be virtually impossible to see under certain conditions. In some locations, the supporting structures of overhead transmission lines are equipped with unique sequence flashing white strobe light systems to indicate that there are wires between the structures. However, many power lines do not require notice to the FAA and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted. Many of those that do require notice do not exceed 200 feet AGL or meet the Obstruction Standard of 14 CFR Part 77 and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted.
Appendix 2 All pilots are cautioned to remain extremely vigilant for these power lines or their supporting structures when following natural flyways or during the approach and landing phase. This is particularly important for seaplane and/or float equipped aircraft when landing on, or departing from, unfamiliar lakes or rivers.
d. Other Objects/Structures. There are other objects or structures that could adversely affect your flight such as construction cranes near an airport, newly constructed buildings, new towers, etc. Many of these structures do not meet charting requirements or may not yet be charted because of the charting cycle. Some structures do not require obstruction marking and/or lighting and some may not be marked and lighted even though the FAA recommended it.
7-6-4. Avoid Flight Beneath Unmanned Balloons
a. The majority of unmanned free balloons currently being operated have, extending below them, either a suspension device to which the payload or instrument package is attached, or a trailing wire antenna, or both. In many instances these balloon subsystems may be invisible to the pilot until the aircraft is close to the balloon, thereby creating a potentially dangerous situation. Therefore, good judgment on the part of the pilot dictates that aircraft should remain well clear of all unmanned free balloons and flight below them should be avoided at all times.
b. Pilots are urged to report any unmanned free balloons sighted to the nearest FAA ground facility with which communication is established. Such information will assist FAA ATC facilities to identify and flight follow unmanned free balloons operating in the airspace.
[AC Comment: In addition to unmanned free balloons, the U.S. Government operates unmarked balloons thousands of feet into the sky tethered to cables. These balloons are contained in published restricted areas. Located primarily along the southern U.S. border, pilots are advised to check their charts for the location of these unmarked tethered balloons when flying through areas they are not familiar with. These balloons may be at an altitude of more than 10,000 feet AGL.] 7-6-6. Mountain Flying
a. Your first experience of flying over mountainous terrain (particularly if most of your flight time has been over the flatlands of the midwest) could be a never-to-be-forgotten nightmare if proper planning is not done and if you are not aware of the potential hazards awaiting. Those familiar section lines are not present in the mountains; those flat, level fields for forced landings are practically nonexistent; abrupt changes in wind direction and velocity occur; severe updrafts and downdrafts are common, particularly near or above abrupt changes of terrain such as cliffs or rugged areas; even the clouds look different and can build up with startling rapidity. Mountain flying need not be hazardous if you follow the recommendations below.
[AC Comment: As in all types of new flying, you should find a qualified and currently certificated flight instructor for a local area checkout.]
b. File a Flight Plan. Plan your route to avoid topography which would prevent a safe forced landing. The route should be over populated areas and well known mountain passes. Sufficient altitude should be maintained to permit gliding to a safe landing in the event of engine failure.
c. Don’t fly a light aircraft when the winds aloft, at your proposed altitude, exceed 35 miles per hour. Expect the winds to be of much greater velocity over mountain passes than reported a few miles from them. Approach mountain passes with as much altitude as possible. Downdrafts of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet per minute are not uncommon on the leeward side.
Appendix 2
d. Don’t fly near or above abrupt changes in terrain. Severe turbulence can be expected, especially in high wind conditions.
e. Understand Mountain Obscuration. The term Mountain Obscuration (MTOS) is used to describe a visibility condition that is distinguished from IFR because ceilings, by definition, are described as “above ground level” (AGL). In mountainous terrain clouds can form at altitudes significantly higher than the weather reporting station and at the same time nearby mountaintops may be obscured by low visibility. In these areas the ground level can also vary greatly over a small area. Beware if operating VFR-on-top. You could be operating closer to the terrain than you think because the tops of mountains are hidden in a cloud deck below. MTOS areas are identified daily on The Aviation Weather Center located at: http://www.aviationweather.gov.
f. Some canyons run into a dead end. Don’t fly so far up a canyon that you get trapped. ALWAYS BE ABLE TO MAKE A 180 DEGREE TURN!
g. VFR flight operations may be conducted at night in mountainous terrain with the application of sound judgment and common sense. Proper pre-flight planning, giving ample consideration to winds and weather, knowledge of the terrain and pilot experience in mountain flying are prerequisites for safety of flight. Continuous visual contact with the surface and obstructions is a major concern and flight operations under an overcast or in the vicinity of clouds should be approached with extreme caution.
h. When landing at a high altitude field, the same indicated airspeed should be used as at low elevation fields. Remember: that due to the less dense air at altitude, this same indicated airspeed actually results in higher true airspeed, a faster landing speed, and more important, a longer landing distance.
During gusty wind conditions which often prevail at high altitude fields, a power approach and power landing is recommended. Additionally, due to the faster groundspeed, your takeoff distance will increase considerably over that required at low altitudes.
i. Effects of Density Altitude. Performance figures in the aircraft owner’s handbook for length of takeoff run, horsepower, rate of climb, etc., are generally based on standard atmosphere conditions (59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius), pressure 29.92 inches of mercury) at sea level. However, inexperienced pilots, as well as experienced pilots, may run into trouble when they encounter an altogether different set of conditions. This is particularly true in hot weather and at higher elevations.
Aircraft operations at altitudes above sea level and at higher than standard temperatures are commonplace in mountainous areas. Such operations quite often result in a drastic reduction of aircraft performance capabilities because of the changing air density. Density altitude is a measure of air density. It is not to be confused with pressure altitude, true altitude, or absolute altitude. It is not to be used as a height reference, but as a determining criteria in the performance capability of an aircraft. Air density decreases with altitude. As air density decreases, density altitude increases. The further effects of high temperature and high humidity are cumulative, resulting in an increasing high density altitude condition. High density altitude reduces all aircraft performance parameters. To the pilot, this means that the normal horsepower output is reduced, propeller efficiency is reduced and a higher true airspeed is required to sustain the aircraft throughout its operating parameters. It means an increase in runway length requirements for takeoff and landings, and decreased rate of climb. An average small airplane, for example, requiring 1,000 feet for takeoff at sea level under standard atmospheric conditions will require a takeoff run of approximately 2,000 feet at an operational altitude of 5,000 feet.
NOTE: A turbo-charged aircraft engine provides some slight advantage in that it provides sea level horsepower up to a specified altitude above sea level.
Appendix 2 [AC Comment: A turbo-charged aircraft can provide a significant operating advantage if operated within its approved limitations. In some cases, a turbo-charged, high performance aircraft may be the only safe way to fly into and out of some mountain landing areas.]
1. Density Altitude Advisories. At airports with elevations of 2,000 feet and higher, control towers and FSSs will broadcast the advisory “Check Density Altitude” when the temperature reaches a predetermined level. These advisories will be broadcast on appropriate tower frequencies or, where available, ATIS. FSSs will broadcast these advisories as a part of Local Airport Advisory.
2. These advisories are provided by air traffic facilities, as a reminder to pilots that high temperatures and high field elevations will cause significant changes in aircraft characteristics. The pilot retains the responsibility to compute density altitude, when appropriate, as a part of preflight duties.
NOTE: All FSSs will compute the current density altitude upon request.
Advisory Circular Feedback Form If you find an error in this AC, have recommendations for improving it, or have suggestions for new items/subjects to be added, you may let us know by contacting the General Aviation and Commercial Division (AFS-800) at 9-AFS-800-Correspondence@faa.gov or the Flight Standards Directives Management Officer at 9-AWA-AFB-120-Directives@faa.gov.
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