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c. A flat spin is characterized by a near level pitch and roll attitude with the spin axis near the CG of the airplane. Recovery from a flat spin may be extremely difficult and, in some cases, impossible.
111. SPIN RECOVERY. Before flying any aircraft in which spins are to be conducted, the pilot should be familiar with the operating characteristics and standard operating procedures, including spin recovery techniques, specified in the approved AFM or POH. The first step in recovering from an upright spin is to close the throttle completely to eliminate power and minimize the loss of altitude. If the particular aircraft spin recovery techniques are not known, the next step is to neutralize the ailerons, determine the direction of the turn, and apply full opposite rudder. When the rotation slows, briskly move the elevator control forward to approximately the neutral position. Some aircraft require merely a relaxation of back pressure;
others require full forward elevator control pressure. Forward movement of the elevator control will decrease the AOA. Once the stall is broken, the spinning will stop. Neutralize the rudder when the spinning stops to avoid entering a spin in the opposite direction. When the rudder is neutralized, gradually apply enough aft elevator pressure to return to level flight. Too much or abrupt aft elevator pressure and/or application of rudder and ailerons during the recovery can result in a secondary stall and possibly another spin. If the spin is being performed in an airplane, the engine will sometimes stop developing power due to centrifugal force acting on the fuel in the airplane's tanks causing fuel interruption. It is, therefore, recommended to assume that power is not available when practicing spin recovery. As a rough estimate, an altitude loss of approximately 500 feet per each 3-second turn can be expected in most small aircraft in which spins are authorized. Greater losses can be expected at higher density altitudes.
112. SPIRAL MODE RECOVERY. The spiral mode is an autorotation mode similar to a spin.
The center of rotation is close to the centerline of the airplane but the airplane is not stalled.
Many airplanes and gliders will not spin at forward CG locations but will spiral. Many airplanes will enter a spin but the spin will become more vertical and degenerate into a spiral. It is important to note that when the spin transitions into the spiral the airspeed will increase as the nose goes down to near vertical. The side forces on the airplane build very rapidly and recovery must be effected immediately before exceeding the structural limits of the airplane. Release the back pressure on the stick (yoke), neutralize the rudder and recover from the steep dive. As in stall and spin recovery, avoid abrupt or excessive elevator inputs that could lead to a secondary stall.
113. THRU 199. RESERVED.
Par 200 Page 9 CHAPTER 2. FLIGHT TRAINING: STALLS
200. STALL TRAINING. Flight instructor-airplane and flight instructor-glider applicants must be able to give stall training. The flight instructor should emphasize that techniques and procedures for each aircraft may differ and that pilots should be aware of the flight characteristics of each aircraft flown. The most effective training method contained in Report No. FAA-RD-77-26, General Aviation Pilot Stall Awareness Study, is the simulation of scenarios that can lead to inadvertent stalls by creating distractions while the student is practicing certain maneuvers. Stall demonstrations and practice, including maneuvering during slow flight and other maneuvers with distractions that can lead to inadvertent stalls, should be conducted at a sufficient altitude to enable recovery above 1,500 feet AGL in single-engine airplanes and 3,000 feet AGL in multiengine airplanes. Because of the possible catastrophic consequences, single-engine stalls should not be demonstrated or practiced in multiengine airplanes. Airplanes with normally aspirated engines will lose power as altitude increases because of the reduced density of the air entering the induction system of the engines. This loss of power will result in a VMC lower than the stall speed at higher altitudes. (VMC is the minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative). Also, some airplanes have such an effective rudder that even at sea level VMC is lower than stall speed. For these airplanes, demonstrating loss of directional control may be safely conducted by limiting rudder travel to simulate maximum rudder available.
Limiting rudder travel should be accomplished well above the power-off stall speed (approximately 20 knots). This will avoid the hazards of stalling one wing with the maximum allowable power applied to the engine on the other wing. The flight training required by 14 CFR part 61 does not entail the actual practicing of spins for other than flight instructor-airplane and flight instructor-glider applicants, but emphasizes stall and spin avoidance. The following training elements are based on Report No. FAA-RD-77-26:
a. Stall Avoidance Practice at Slow Airspeeds.
(1) Assign a heading and an altitude. Have the student reduce power and slow to an airspeed just above the stall speed, using trim as necessary.
(2) Have the student maintain heading and altitude with the stall warning device activated.
(3) Demonstrate the effect of elevator trim (use neutral and full-nose-up settings) and rudder trim, if available.
(4) Note the left turning tendency and rudder effectiveness for lateral/directional control.
(5) Emphasize how right rudder pressure is necessary to center the ball indicator and maintain heading.
(6) Release the rudder and advise the student to observe the left yaw.
(7) Adverse yaw demonstration. While at a low airspeed, have the student enter left and right turns without using rudder pedals.
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(8) Have the student practice turns, climbs, and descents at low airspeeds.
(9) Demonstrate the proper flap extension and retraction procedures while in level flight to avoid a stall at low airspeeds. Note the change in stall speeds with flaps extended and retracted.
(10) Utilize realistic distractions at low airspeeds. Give the student a task to perform while flying at a low airspeed. Instruct the student to divide his/her attention between the task and flying the aircraft to maintain control and avoid a stall. The following distractions can be used:
(a) Drop a pencil. Ask the student to pick it up.
(b) Ask the student to determine a heading to an airport using a chart.
(c) Ask the student to reset the clock to Universal Coordinated Time.
(d) Ask the student to get something from the back seat.
(e) Ask the student to read the outside air temperature.
(f) Ask the student to call the Flight Service Station (FSS) for weather information.
(g) Ask the student to compute true airspeed with a flight computer.
(h) Ask the student to identify terrain or objects on the ground.
(i) Ask the student to identify a field suitable for a forced landing.
(j) Have the student climb 200 feet and maintain altitude, then descend 200 feet and maintain altitude.
(k) Have the student reverse course after a series of S-turns.
(11) Fly at low airspeeds with the airspeed indicator covered. Use various flap settings and distractions.
b. Power-On (Departure) Stall.
(1) At a safe altitude, have the student attempt coordinated power-on (departure) stalls straight ahead and in turns. Emphasize how these stalls could occur during takeoff.
(2) Ask the student to demonstrate a power-on (departure) stall and distract him/her just before the stall occurs. Explain any effects the distraction may have had on the stall or recovery.
c. Engine Failure in a Climb Followed by a Gliding Turn. This demonstration will show the student how much altitude the airplane loses following a power failure after takeoff and during a turn back to the runway and why returning to the airport after losing an engine is not a
Par 200 Page 11 recommended procedure. This can be performed using either a medium or a steep bank in the turn, but emphasis should be given to stall avoidance.
(1) Set up best rate of climb (VY). Directly below you there should be a straight line landmark (e.g., road or power line) parallel to your flightpath.
(2) Reduce power smoothly to idle as the airplane passes through a cardinal altitude.
(3) Lower the nose to maintain the best glide speed and make a 260° turn at the best glide speed. Emphasize that this turn should be into the wind (if there is a crosswind).
(4) Re-intercept your final outbound course over the landmark you chose, inbound with an 80° turn in the opposite direction.
(5) Point out the altitude loss and emphasize how rapidly airspeed decreases following a power failure in a climb attitude.
NOTE: Depending on winds, length of runway, and altitude the 260/80° turns may need to be modified (250/70° or 270/90°) to meet the existing situation.
d. Cross Controlled Stalls in Gliding Turns. Perform stalls in gliding turns to simulate turns from base to final. Perform the stalls from a properly coordinated turn, a slipping turn, and a skidding turn. Explain the difference between slipping and skidding turns. Explain the ball indicator position in each turn and the aircraft behavior in each of the stalls.
e. Power-Off (Approach-To-Landing) Stalls.
(1) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear-extended, power-off stall with the correct recovery and cleanup procedures. Note the loss of altitude.
(2) Have the student repeat this procedure and distract the student during the stall and recovery and note the effect of the distraction. Show how errors in flap retraction procedure can cause a secondary stall.
f. Stalls During Go-Arounds.
(1) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear-extended, power-off stall, then recover and attempt to climb with flaps extended. If a higher than normal climb pitch attitude is held, a secondary stall will occur. (In some airplanes, a stall will occur if a normal climb pitch attitude is held.) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear-extended, power-off stall, then recover and retract the flaps rapidly as a higher-than-normal climb pitch attitude is held. A secondary stall or settling with a loss of altitude may result.
g. Elevator Trim Stall.
(1) Have the student place the airplane in a landing approach configuration, in a trimmed descent.
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(2) After the descent is established, initiate a go-around by adding full power, holding only light elevator and right rudder pressure.
(3) Allow the nose to pitch up and torque to swerve the airplane left. At the first indication of a stall, recover to a normal climbing pitch attitude.
(4) Emphasize the importance of correct attitude control, application of control pressures, and proper trim during go-arounds.
201. THRU 299. RESERVED.
Par 300 Page 13 CHAPTER 3. FLIGHT TRAINING: SPINS
300. SPIN TRAINING. Spin training is required for flight instructor-airplane and flight instructor-glider applicants only. Upon completion of the training, the applicant’s logbook or training record should be endorsed by the flight instructor who provided the training. A sample endorsement of spin training for flight instructor applicants is available in the current edition of AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors.
a. Spin training must be accomplished in an aircraft that is approved for spins. Before practicing intentional spins, the AFM or POH should be consulted for the proper entry and recovery techniques.
b. The training should begin by practicing both power-on and power-off stalls to familiarize the applicant with the aircraft's stall characteristics. Spin avoidance, incipient spins, actual spin entry, spin, and spin recovery techniques should be practiced from an altitude above 3,500 feet AGL.
c. Spin avoidance training should consist of stalls and maneuvering during slow flight using realistic distractions such as those listed in Chapter 2. Performance is considered unsatisfactory if it becomes necessary for the instructor to take control of the aircraft to avoid a fully developed spin.
d. Incipient spins should be practiced to train the instructor applicant to recover from a student's poorly performed stall or unusual attitude that could lead to a spin. Configure the aircraft for a power-on or power-off stall, and continue to apply back elevator pressure. As the stall occurs, apply right or left rudder and allow the nose to yaw toward the stalled wing. Release the spin inducing controls and recover as the spin begins by applying opposite rudder and forward elevator pressure. The instructor should discuss control application in the recovery.
e. Spin entry, spin, and spin recovery should be demonstrated by the instructor and repeated in both directions by the applicant.
(1) Apply the entry procedure for a power-off stall. As the airplane approaches a stall, smoothly apply full rudder in the direction of desired spin rotation and continue to apply back elevator to the limit of travel. The ailerons should be neutral.
(2) Allow the spin to develop, and be fully recovered no later than one full turn.
Observe the airspeed indicator during the spin and subsequent recovery to ensure that it does not reach the red line (VNE).
(3) Follow the recovery procedures recommended by the manufacturer in the AFM or POH. In most aircraft, spin recovery techniques consist of retarding power (if in a powered aircraft), applying opposite rudder to slow the rotation, neutralizing the ailerons, applying positive forward elevator movement to break the stall, neutralizing the rudder as the spinning stops, and returning to level flight.
f. During spin training if a spin is not fully developed, the aircraft may instead go into a spiral. A spiral may be recognized by a rapidly increasing airspeed after the attempted spin entry.
Page 14 Par 300 (In an actual spin, the airspeed normally stabilizes below stall speed). The pilot must recognize a spiral and initiate immediate recovery to prevent exceeding structural limits of the airplane.
301. SPIN TRAINING AND PARACHUTES. Title 14 CFR part 91, § 91.307(c) prohibits the pilot of a civil aircraft from executing any intentional maneuver that exceeds 60° of bank relative to the horizon, or exceeds 30° nose-up or nose-down attitude relative to the horizon, unless an approved parachute is worn by each occupant (other than a crewmember). Section 91.307(d) states, in part, that § 91.307(c) does not apply to flight tests for a Pilot Certificate or rating, or spins and other flight maneuvers required by the regulations, for any certificate or rating when given by a certificated flight instructor (CFI) or an airline transport pilot (ATP) instructing in accordance with part 61, § 61.167.
a. Section 61.183(i) requires an applicant for a Flight Instructor Certificate airplane or glider rating to receive flight training in stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery procedures. The applicant must also possess and demonstrate instructional proficiency in these areas to receive the certificate or rating.
b. Because spin entry, spins, and spin recovery are required for a Flight Instructor Certificate airplane or glider rating, a person receiving instruction from an authorized instructor need not wear an approved parachute while instruction is being provided in these maneuvers.
The instructor providing the training is also not required to wear an approved parachute while providing this flight training.
302. THRU 399. RESERVED.
Par 400 Page 15 CHAPTER 4. AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS
400. OPERATING LIMITATIONS. Operating limitations are imposed for the safety of pilots and their passengers. Operations contrary to these restrictions are a serious compromise of safety. It is important that all pilots and flight and ground instructors, and pilot examiners apply the following information on spins to pilot training and flight operations.
a. Normal Category. These airplanes are not approved for performing acrobatic maneuvers, including spins, and are placarded against intentional spins. However, to provide a margin of safety when recovery from a stall is delayed, normal category airplanes are tested during certification and must be able to recover from a one turn spin or a 3-second spin, whichever takes longer, in no longer than one additional turn with the controls used in the normally used for recovery or demonstrating the airplane’s resistance to spins. In addition for airplanes demonstrating compliance with one turn or 3-second requirements:
(1) For both the flaps retracted and flaps extended conditions, the applicable airspeed limit and positive limit maneuvering load factor must not be exceeded;
(2) No control forces or characteristic encountered during the spin of the recovery may adversely affect prompt recovery;
(3) It must be impossible to obtain uncontrollable spins with any use of the flight or engine power controls either at the entry or during the spin; and
(4) In extended condition, the flaps may be retracted during recovery but not before the rotation has ceased.
NOTE: Since airplanes certificated in the normal category have not been tested for more than a one turn or 3-second spin, their performance characteristics beyond these limits are unknown. This is the reason they are placarded against intentional spins.
b. Acrobatic Category. An acrobatic category airplane must meet the spin requirements for normal category aircraft and the following additional requirements:
(1) The airplane must recover from any point in a spin, up to and including six turns, or any greater number of turns for which certification is requested, in no more than one and a half additional turns after initiation of the first control action for recovery. However, beyond three turns, the spin may be discontinued if spiral characteristics appear.
(2) The applicable airspeed limits and limit maneuvering load factor must not be exceeded. For the flaps extended configuration for which approval is requested, the flaps must not be retracted during recovery.
(3) It must be impossible to obtain uncontrollable spins with any use of the flight or engine power controls either at the entry or during the spin.
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(4) There must be no characteristics during the spin (such as excessive rates of rotation or extreme oscillatory motion) that might prevent a successful recovery due to disorientation or incapacitation of the pilot.
NOTE: Unless a greater number of turns are requested for certification acrobatic category airplanes have not been tested for more than six turns.
The recovery characteristics for additional turns are unknown.
c. Utility Category. A utility category airplane must meet the spin requirements for both normal and acrobatic category airplanes and the applicable emergency exit requirements of § 23.807 if the aircraft is approved for spins.
401. PLACARDS. Under § 23.1567, all airplanes type-certificated under part 23 must have a flight maneuver placard containing the following information:
a. For normal category airplanes, there must be a placard in front of and in clear view of the pilot stating, “No acrobatic maneuvers, including spins, approved.”
b. For utility category airplanes that meet the spin requirements, there must be a placard in front of and in clear view of the pilot stating, “Acrobatic maneuvers are limited to the following (list approved maneuvers and the recommended entry speed for each).”
c. For utility category airplanes that do not meet the spin requirements for acrobatic category airplanes, there must be an additional placard in clear view of the pilot stating: “Spins Prohibited.”
d. For acrobatic category airplanes, there must be a placard in clear view of the pilot listing the approved acrobatic maneuvers and the recommended entry airspeed for each. If inverted flight maneuvers are not approved, the placard must include a notation to this effect.
e. For acrobatic category airplanes and utility category airplanes approved for spin, there must be a placard in clear view of the pilot listing the control actions for the recovery from spinning maneuvers; and stating that recovery must be initiated when spiral characteristics appear, or after not more than six turns or not more than any greater number of turns for which the airplane has been certificated.
402. PILOT AWARENESS. The pilot of an airplane placarded against intentional spins should assume that the airplane may become uncontrollable in a spin. In addition, stall warning devices should not be deactivated for pilot certification flight tests in airplanes for which they are required equipment.