2-8 runway incursions. To meet this goal, pilots can take (and flight instructors should teach) the following steps:
2.3.6.1 Step 1: Maintain Proficiency. Receiving continuing education and training is an essential step that a pilot can take to ensure that they are proficient. Each pilot is unique and no pilot is proficient in all situations. Therefore, GA pilots should self-assess their aeronautical ability prior to conducting a flight as pilot in command (PIC). Poor training in any skill set increases the potential for an undesirable outcome. Poor radio communication skills, for example, have caused runway incursions. To reduce this risk, pilots should meet English language skill standards, understand and use correct pilot/controller terminology, and use proper voice cadence when communicating by radio.
Lack of familiarity with airport markings can also lead to runway incursions.
Some GA pilots tend to ignore signage when the pilot is familiar with an airport. Pilots who operate in the same environment most of the time may find themselves at a new airport and lack familiarity with signage. This places the pilot in a vulnerable position. GA pilots who do not have much experience or recency with ATC or controlled airport operations should work with a flight instructor to develop proficiency. These examples illustrate the need for continuing education and training. Familiarization with airport markings, airport operations, and ATC/pilot terminology are also important areas that a flight instructor should consider when conducting an IPC or flight review.
Recurrent training, including a flight to a towered airport with an experienced flight instructor, is a good way to gain proficiency with airport operations and to develop the required skills to avoid runway incursions.
2.3.6.2 Step 2: Plan Each Flight. Planning is an essential step that GA pilots can take to avoid pilot errors and runway incursions. Pilots should plan each flight before it takes place, even when flying to a familiar airport. Preflight planning enables the pilot to gain SA and make an informed go/no-go decision. Flight planning should not merely include planning the route of flight; it should also include a review of pertinent airport diagrams. Taking time during the preflight planning process to review airport diagrams is essential. For example, airport diagrams often include “hot spots.” The FAA defines a hot spot as a location on an airport movement area with a history of potential risk of collision or runway incursion. Many airports with a high incidence of runway incursions have identified hot spots where incursions most frequently occur. Pilots can avoid the common errors related to runway incursions by being aware of each hot spot as it relates to the taxiways and runways. Airport hot spots are only one of many considerations in preflight planning.
Circumstances change quickly. En route weather conditions or airport movement area closures is vital information. To be prepared, pilots need to review all information concerning the flight, including Notices to Air Missions (NOTAM). Pilots should always obtain a standard briefing and review pertinent NOTAMs prior to each flight. Conducting preflight planning prior to every flight places a pilot in a better position to avoid incidents, accidents, and runway incursions.
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2.3.6.3 Step 3: Use Set Procedures. GA pilots should develop and adhere to set cockpit procedures based on regulatory requirements and industry best practices. Taking the step to develop and routinely use set procedures complements mandatory actions and reduces the risks of human errors and runway incursions. Pilots should also include the following items in their set cockpit procedures:
2.3.6.3.1 Passenger Briefing. GA pilots should always brief passengers prior to a flight operation. Determining the necessary components for developing or validating an effective passenger briefing begins in the planning stage of a flight. The passenger briefing should contain the pilot’s instruction and procedures for minimizing distractions in the cockpit. It should also include all the pertinent elements prescribed by 14 CFR part 91, § 91.107(a)(1) and (2). Many proprietary checklists include the passenger briefing.
2.3.6.3.2 C hecklist Usage. GA pilots should use an effective, aircraft-specific checklist as a matter of routine throughout all phases of aircraft operations. Pilots should complete all aircraft pretaxi checklist items prior to taxi.
2.3.6.3.3 N avigation and Communications (NAV/COM) Setup. Communications and navigation aids should be set up prior to taxi. Setting up radios and navigational aids on the roll are distractions; this is the leading cause of “heads down” in the cockpit. This in turn hinders the pilot’s ability to see and avoid any conflicts while taxiing.
2.3.6.3.4 C opying Clearances. Most pilots have, or should develop, a shorthand method for copying an instrument flight rules (IFR) clearance. The same is true for a taxi clearance. Pilots should develop a set method to copy any type of taxi clearance. Pilots should write down and read back all clearances to ensure that the pilot establishes and maintains effective communications. As with any clearance, a readback for a taxi clearance is mandatory.
2.3.6.3.5 S terile Cockpit. A sterile cockpit is another procedural step that pilots should take to reduce the risk of a runway incursion. A sterile cockpit means avoiding all conversations and actions not related to flight during critical phases of aircraft operations such as taxi, takeoff, and landings. A distraction-free cockpit should always include proper taxi procedures and no extraneous conversations or cell phone use.
2.3.6.3.6 T axi Procedure. GA pilots should use proper taxi procedures to reduce the risk of an incident or accident. Maintaining an appropriate taxi speed is a crucial element of an effective taxi procedure.
2.3.6.4 Step 4: Prevent Taxi Confusion. Pilots can take additional steps to reduce the risk of confusion during ground operations. Taxi confusion most commonly occurs when a pilot is taxiing at an unfamiliar airport.
Low-visibility conditions increase the potential for confusion. Pilots have the
2-10 option to request progressive taxi instructions when taxiing at a controlled airport. Progressive taxi instructions are an excellent mitigation strategy to ensure compliance with taxi clearances. This procedure is especially useful at unfamiliar controlled airports. Receiving progressive taxi instructions is an effective strategy to prevent runway incursions. Pilots should have access to the airport diagram when taxiing. Pilots may use the same diagram that they used during the preflight planning process. Airport diagrams are designed to assist in the movement of ground traffic at locations with complex runway/taxiway configurations. Runway confusion occurs when pilots confuse the identity of a runway. This is another example of an error that an effective set operating procedure can prevent. Setting the heading bug to the assigned runway heading, when a runway assignment is given, provides a method to ensure that the pilot identifies the correct runway. Familiarity with airport markings comes into play here, too. Reading all available signs and verifying them with the runway assignment should be part of a pilot’s set procedure. The critical part is to include these actions into the set procedure and use the procedure on every flight. A comprehensive and set taxi procedure will help to prevent an unwanted event such as a runway incursion.
2.3.6.5 Step 5: Ensure Situational Awareness (SA). Ensuring SA is another step that begins with preflight planning. Some pilots only think of SA in terms of flight operations. Reframing SA to cover all phases of flight is one more step in reducing pilot errors. While maintaining SA is important in all circumstances, it is particularly important when operating at an airport without an operating control tower. To achieve SA, pilots should be fully aware of their intended taxi route and be able to follow the planned route correctly. To maintain SA, pilots should always adopt a heads-up attitude when taxiing.
This industry best practice is also a step to reduce the risk of an inadvertent runway incursion.
2.3.6.6 Step 6: Manage Aircraft Lights. Use of aircraft lights is an additional procedure that GA pilots often overlook. Exterior aircraft lights may be used to make an aircraft operating on the airport surface more conspicuous. Aircraft lights allow others to have some idea of the pilot’s intentions. Proper use of aircraft lights should be a defined element in every pilot’s set procedures. One example of how this might help prevent runway incursion is that airmen assume that an aircraft’s landing light will be on when it is ready to take off. If ATC issues a Line Up and Wait (LUAW) clearance and the pilot mistakenly plans to take off, the tower may notice the landing lights on and call for confirmation so that a mishap is avoided.
2.3.7 The FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam). Because GA PDs comprise the greatest percentage of all runway incursions, the FAA has increased its outreach efforts through its Flight Standards FAASTeam program. The FAASTeam program provides outreach to GA pilots on topics concerning aviation safety. For example, the FAASTeam addresses local runway safety issues by posting hot spot charts, runway safety bulletins, runway safety event notices, and other materials on its website, https://www.faasafety.gov.
2-11 Additionally, the FAASTeam also provides web-based training. Pilots and flight instructors should become familiar with all FAASTeam resources to learn more about runway incursions.
2.3.8 FAA Recommendations. GA runway incursions are too common. Sometimes they result in tragedy. Pilots and flight instructors need to 1) understand the root causes of runway incursions, 2) be aware of industry best practices to mitigate runway incursions, and
3) integrate the steps described above into effective set procedures to avoid runway incursions. In addition, GA pilots should apply this information to their personal currency programs. Flight instructors should apply runway incursion avoidance strategies in their training and pilot evaluation plans of action. You can find additional runway incursion information and mitigation resources at https://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety.
2.4 Flight Instructor Responsibility and Safety Culture. The only contact that many pilots may have with an aviation authority is through their instructors. Flight instructors are professionals who play a vital role in ensuring aviation safety. Consequently, flight instructors are the cornerstone of aviation safety. They mentor pilot safety practices as they mitigate aviation accidents by providing pilot flight training and conducting pilot evaluations. In other words, flight instructors bear a responsibility to produce and sustain the safest pilots possible.
2.4.1 Mentoring Competency. A flight instructor’s actions influence the GA safety culture. The FAA expects all flight instructors to adhere to the highest training standards and safety practices. Flight instructors should be fully qualified in every role they perform. For example, and as discussed further in paragraph 4.2.5, the flight instructor should be qualified in each specific aircraft M/M in which they provide instruction. For this reason, flight instructors should consider their personal qualifications prior to accepting any instructional or pilot evaluation role. This is an important consideration for conducting a flight review, IPC, or specialized flight training, such as transition training in a specific TAA. If a flight instructor is not proficient in an aircraft or specialized field of instruction, the flight instructor should always be honest and decline to provide flight training or a pilot evaluation in an unfamiliar aircraft or role. As an alternative, the flight instructor should assist the pilot in finding an experienced flight instructor who is qualified to fill the flight instructor role in the specialized aircraft or field of interest. The FAA’s optional Best Practices for Mentoring in Flight Instruction provides additional tips for aviation mentors. You can find this publication at https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/fi les/training_testing/training/mentoring_best_practices.pdf
2.4.2 FAA/Industry Safety Recommendations. Flight instructors are required to be knowledgeable and up to date on issues critical to aviation safety. Government/industry safety recommendations help flight instructors meet this responsibility. GAJSC findings and recommendations, NTSB safety reports, and the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association’s (AOPA) Air Safety Institute’s Joseph T. Nall Reports all provide critical safety information. Flight instructors should incorporate this information into the training they provide. Utilizing and disseminating this critical information when promoting personal currency programs, providing effective flight reviews, and conducting IPCs helps to build a positive safety culture that can reduce GA accidents.
3-1 CHAPTER 3. RECENT FLIGHT EXPERIENCE
3.1 Recent General Experience. Title 14 CFR Part 61, § 61.57(a), General Experience, and (b), Night Takeoff and Landing Experience, specify the minimum requirements for recent flight experience, specifically takeoffs and landings, in each category and class of aircraft in order to act as pilot in command (PIC) of an aircraft carrying passengers.
3.1.1 Requirements Specified in § 61.57(a) and (b). Pilots should regard these requirements as minimums that should be modified to address factors such as overall pilot experience, different operating environments, complexity of the facilities used, and variations in makes and models (M/M) of aircraft within specific categories and classes. For example, a pilot may meet recent flight experience in a given M/M of aircraft but may have operated only in light or moderate wind conditions at airports with long runways. The pilot should consider acquiring additional takeoff and landing experience in stronger wind conditions or at airports with short runways before acting as PIC of an aircraft carrying passengers in similar conditions. Under some circumstances, the change in the customary operating environment may be great enough that the pilot should seek flight instruction before attempting solo operations.
3.1.2 Night Currency Requirements. Night currency requirements deserve additional consideration. The night experience of most pilots represents only a small portion of their total flight time. The impact of marginal weather conditions on night operations is so significant that pilots should evaluate their own need for both increased proficiency and additional planning when contemplating flights under marginal conditions at night.
3.1.3 Obtaining Currency for Each M/M. Special considerations apply when pilots operate aircraft M/Ms they do not customarily fly. Analysis of accident data has shown that accident rates increase for pilots with little or no time in the aircraft type flown.
Section 61.31 specifies additional requirements that apply to operating aircraft
(e.g., tailwheel, complex, high-performance, turbine, or large aircraft) that may require a type rating, specific training endorsement, authorization, and/or additional experience requirements for that aircraft or operation. For non-high-performance small aircraft, the basic currency requirements of § 61.57(a) and (b) apply only to category and class. For example, a pilot who meets the requirements in a Cessna 152 would also meet the requirements in a Cessna 172. However, the FAA recommends that pilots attain currency in each separate M/M before conducting passenger-carrying operations. This currency should include familiarity with the pilot’s operating handbook (POH), the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM), and/or any other available information on that aircraft. The FAA recommends that all pilots obtain a comprehensive checkout in each M/M aircraft from an appropriately rated flight instructor. Airmen are encouraged to search for aircraft “clubs” for information and familiarization on specific M/Ms. AC 90-109, Transition to Unfamiliar Aircraft, provides additional information and guidance pertaining to transition to experimental and/or unfamiliar airplanes.
Note: C onsiderations regarding basic currency apply not only to single-engine land airplanes but to other categories and classes of aircraft, including multiengine aircraft, seaplanes, gliders, helicopters, gyroplanes, and free balloons.
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3.2 Recent Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Experience. When conducted in accordance with § 61.57(c) and as qualified and approved by the Administrator, pilots may perform the six required approaches, holding procedures and tasks, and intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigational electronic systems (all aircraft except gliders) in an FAA-qualified full flight simulator (FFS) or flight training device (FTD).
Furthermore, this instrument experience must be accomplished in a program approved by the Administrator (§ 61.4). An FAA-approved Aviation Training Device (ATD) may be used (refer to AC 61-136, FAA Approval of Aviation Training Devices and Their Use for Training and Experience) to accomplish instrument currency as specified in the FAA Letter of Authorization (LOA) provided for each ATD model.
4-1 CHAPTER 4. FLIGHT REVIEW
4.1 Intent and Structure of the Flight Review.
4.1.1 Intent of Flight Review. The purpose of the flight review required by 14 CFR part 61, § 61.56 is to provide for a regular evaluation of pilot skills and aeronautical knowledge.
Consequently, a flight review is a routine evaluation of a pilot’s ability to conduct safe flight. In effect, it is a proficiency-based exercise in which the airman is required to demonstrate the safe exercise of the privileges of their pilot certificate. The flight instructor should be aware that the flight review is not a practical test, but rather a training event in which proficiency is evaluated. Section 61.56 states that the review must consist of a minimum of 1 hour of ground training and a minimum of 1 hour of flight training, except as provided for in § 61.56(b), (d), and (e). However, all flight instructors should fully understand that § 61.56(a)(2) requires the instructor to conduct “a review of those maneuvers and procedures that, at the discretion of the person giving the review, are necessary for the pilot to demonstrate the safe exercise of the privileges of the pilot certificate.” If the pilot does not demonstrate the proficiency to conduct safe flight, then more training is required. For this reason, the FAA reminds flight instructors that a flight review may require more than 1 hour of ground training and 1 hour of flight training.
Since satisfactory completion of a flight review is based on pilot proficiency, it is up to the instructional service provider to determine what type of instruction is required and how much additional training time, if any, is required to ensure that the pilot has the necessary knowledge and skills to conduct safe flight operations. While flight instructors are encouraged to manage the expectations of the pilot under review and discuss the outline of the flight review with the pilot, it is the flight instructor that ultimately determines the total training time required for a flight review.
4.1.2 Structure of Flight Review. F or the reasons previously discussed, a flight instructor should not develop a flight review plan of action based on regulatory minimums. Instead, a flight instructor should develop a plan based on achieving a flight proficiency and knowledge level that meets regulatory requirements. Section 61.56 states that a flight review must include a review of the current general operating and flight rules of 14 CFR part 91. It also states that a person conducting the review has the discretion to determine the maneuvers and procedures necessary for the pilot under review to demonstrate “safe exercise of the privileges of the pilot certificate.” With the increasing complexity of the aviation operating environment, flight instructors are encouraged to structure the flight review and develop a plan of action that is specific to the needs of the pilot under review.
The FAA has provided the following recommended guidance in this paragraph to help flight instructors develop a plan of action for an effective flight review.
Note: T he Private Pilot for Airplane Category Airman Certification Standards (ACS) (FAA-S-ACS-6), Commercial Pilot for Airplane Category ACS (FAA-S-ACS-7), and Airline Transport Pilot and Type Rating for Airplane Category ACS (FAA-S-ACS- 11) have replaced the corresponding practical test standards (PTS) for airplane applicants. There have been similar transitions for other aircraft categories, including rotorcraft and powered-lift. Applicants continue to use the current version of the appropriate PTS if it has not been
4-2 replaced by an ACS. Applicants and instructors should always check the FAA Airman Testing web page to ensure use of the most current versions of the ACS/PTS at https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing.
4.1.2.1 Accomplishing a Flight Review. Under § 61.56(c) no person may act as pilot in command (PIC) of an aircraft, except as provided in § 61.56(d), (e), and (g), unless within the preceding 24 calendar months that person has accomplished a satisfactory flight review in an aircraft for which that pilot is appropriately rated. An authorized instructor or other person approved by the Administrator must conduct the flight review.
4.1.2.2 Completing the FAA Pilot Proficiency Program (WINGS) (One or More Phases). Under § 61.56(e), a person who has satisfactorily completed one or more phases of the FAA-sponsored WINGS within the preceding 24 calendar months does not need to accomplish the flight review requirements of the section. AC 61-91, WINGS—P ilot Proficiency Program, describes how flight instructors should encourage pilots to participate in WINGS.
4.1.2.3 Co mpleting Proficiency Checks and Ratings.
4.1.2.3.1 Pilots and flight instructors should be aware that, under § 61.56(d), there is no requirement for pilots who have completed certain proficiency checks and ratings within the preceding 24 calendar months to accomplish a separate flight review. These accomplishments include satisfactory completion of pilot proficiency checks conducted by the FAA, an approved pilot check airman, a Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE), or one of the U.S. Armed Forces for a pilot certificate, rating, or operating privilege.
Note: Under § 61.56(d), an airman who passes a practical test for issuance of a flight instructor certificate, a practical test for the addition of a rating to a flight instructor certificate, a practical test to meet flight instructor recent experience requirements, or a practical test for the reinstatement of flight instructor privileges, meets the 24-calendar-month flight review requirements.
4.1.2.3.2 However, the FAA recommends that pilots consider also accomplishing a review under some of the following circumstances. For example, a pilot with an Airplane Single-Engine Land (ASEL) rating may have recently obtained a glider rating, but may still wish to consider obtaining a flight review in a single-engine airplane if the appropriate 24-calendar-month period has nearly expired. When approached by pilots seeking advice on such matters, flight instructors should consider the factors described in the following paragraphs.
4.2 Pre-Review Considerations. Before undertaking the review, the flight instructor should interview the pilot to determine the nature of their flying and operating requirements.
Elements to consider should include, but not be limited to, the following areas:
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4.2.1 Type of Equipment Flown.
4.2.1.1 Section 61.56(c)(1) states that to act as a PIC, a pilot must accomplish a flight review in an aircraft for which that pilot is rated. A pilot might hold multiple ratings. In such cases, the pilot may take a flight review in any one of the aircraft for which the pilot holds a rating or operating privilege, and they will have met the regulatory requirement for all aircraft for which the pilot holds a certificate and/or rating. For example, a pilot who holds a private pilot certificate with an ASEL class rating and a commercial pilot certificate with lighter-than-air category and balloon class ratings may take a flight review in either aircraft and will have still met the flight review requirements of the rule for both aircraft. However, a pilot may not take a flight review in an aircraft for which they do not hold a rating or operating privilege. For example, that same ASEL-rated pilot may not take a flight review in a Multiengine Land (MEL) airplane if the pilot does not hold an MEL airplane class rating. A pilot who holds only a sport pilot certificate may only take a flight review in a light-sport aircraft for which the pilot holds an operational privilege. For example, a sport pilot who holds airplane privileges could not take the flight review in a Cessna 172, because that airplane is not a light-sport airplane and the pilot does not hold operating privileges for that airplane.
4.2.1.2 The reviewed maneuvers and procedures will vary depending on the category, class, and make and model (M/M) of the aircraft used. For example, a review in a light multiengine aircraft will be different from one conducted in a small, two-seat tailwheel aircraft that utilizes limited instrumentation. The flight instructor may wish to recommend that the pilot complete the review in the aircraft most commonly flown, or in a more complex M/M if the pilot regularly flies several aircraft. The flight instructor may also wish to recommend that the pilot take a review in more than one category/class of aircraft under certain circumstances. For example, a pilot with ASEL and glider ratings may have flown only gliders in the last 2 years but is also contemplating flying single-engine airplanes soon. If a pilot who requests a review only in the glider approaches a flight instructor, the flight instructor may wish to recommend an additional review by a qualified person in a single-engine airplane before the pilot acts as PIC of a single-engine airplane.
4.2.2 Nature of Flight Operations. The flight instructor should consider the type of flying usually done by the pilot before establishing a plan of action for conducting the review.
For example, a pilot conducting long-distance flights between busy terminal areas may need a different review than a pilot who usually flies in the local area from the same airport. The flight instructor should consider the need for an indepth review of certain subjects or procedures if the type of flight operations is likely to change, or if other extenuating circumstances exist. For example, a pilot who normally conducts only local flight operations may plan to begin flying to a location with Class B Airspace. Another pilot may only operate a two-seat aircraft without a radio but will operate in close proximity to Class B Airspace. In both cases, the flight instructor should include Class B Airspace operating requirements and procedures in the flight review. This review should
4-4 also include pertinent revisions to operational regulations to ensure that the pilot has full knowledge of these changes.
4.2.3 Amount and Recency of Flight Experience. The flight instructor should review the pilot’s logbook to determine total flight time, time in type, and recency of experience in order to evaluate the need for particular maneuvers and procedures in the review. For example, a pilot who has not flown in several years may require an extensive review of basic maneuvers from the PTS or ACS appropriate to that pilot’s certificate level. The same pilot may also require a more extensive review of part 91, including changes in airspace and other requirements. Another pilot who is transitioning to a newer, faster, or technically advanced aircraft (TAA) should receive more emphasis on knowledge of aircraft systems and performance, or in cross-country procedures appropriate to a faster airplane. Regardless of flight experience, the flight instructor should ensure that the review plan of action includes all areas in which the flight instructor determines the pilot should receive training in order to operate safely. In some cases, the flight instructor may wish to recommend that the pilot accomplish a complete refresher program.
4.2.4 Agreement on the Conduct of the Review. After completing the above analysis, the flight instructor should review these considerations with the pilot and reach an understanding regarding how the flight instructor will conduct the review. The flight instructor should also review the criteria for satisfactory completion of the review with the pilot. The flight instructor may wish to provide the pilot with reading materials or recommend publications for study before conducting the flight review. For example, the FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam) provides many free online “Wings Courses for Pilots,” which includes a free online flight review preparation course ALC-25, Flight Review Prep Guide. You can find this course at https://www.faasafety.gov/gslac/ALC/course_cat alog.aspx.
4.2.5 Instructor Qualifications. Instructors should also consider their own experience and qualifications in a given M/M aircraft prior to giving a review in that model. The flight instructor conducting a flight review must hold a category, class, and (if appropriate) type rating on their pilot certificate. Also, the instructor must have a category and class rating on their flight instructor certificate or a category and class flight instructor privilege in their logbook appropriate to the aircraft in which they will conduct the review. To conduct a flight review in a multiengine airplane, the instructor must hold an airplane multiengine rating on their pilot and flight instructor certificates. For aircraft in which the flight instructor is not current or with which that instructor is not familiar, the instructor should obtain recent flight experience or sufficient knowledge of aircraft limitations, characteristics, and performance before conducting the review. In any case, the flight instructor must observe the rating limitations of § 61.195.
4.3 Planning and Recording the Review. The FAA recommends that flight instructors consider the information in this chapter and Appendices D through F of this AC to prepare, conduct, and document the flight review. After reaching an agreement on how the flight instructor will conduct the review, the flight instructor should prepare a plan of action for completing the review. The plan of action should include a list of regulatory subjects that the flight instructor will cover, the maneuvers and procedures that the pilot
4-5 will need to accomplish, the anticipated sequence in which the segments will occur, and the location where the flight instructor will perform the review. You can find a suggested flight review plan of action format in Appendix D. Although not required by § 61.189, the flight instructor may wish to retain this plan of action (job aid) for an appropriate period as a record of the scope and content of the flight review. Additionally, the flight instructor may wish to submit an FAA Form 8710-1, Airman Certificate and/or Rating Application, to the Airmen Certification Branch. When submitted, the Airmen Certification Branch will add the application to the pilot’s record (see paragraph 1.10.2).
4.3.1 Review of Part 91 Operating and Flight Rules. The flight instructor should tailor the review of general operating and flight rules to the needs of the pilot under review. The objective is to ensure that the pilot can comply with all regulatory requirements and operate safely in various types of airspace under an appropriate range of weather conditions. As a result, the flight instructor should conduct a review that is broad enough to meet this objective yet provide a more comprehensive review in those areas in which the pilot’s knowledge is weaker. In the latter instance, the flight instructor may wish to employ a variety of references/sources, such as the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), to ensure that the pilot’s knowledge meets current standards.
4.3.2 Pilot Deviations (PD). The occurrence of incidents and PDs has emphasized the need to ensure that all pilots receive adequate briefing on PD avoidance awareness. PDs are broadly categorized as airborne or ground. Airborne PDs include altitude and heading deviations and airspace violations. Ground PDs include runway incursions and any other unauthorized operation in the movement areas of an airport (see paragraph 2.3 for more information). Pilots should be familiar with all types of airspace, ground operating procedures, and best practices to avoid potential PDs. The flight review may be the only regular proficiency and recurrency training experienced by some pilots. Therefore, flight instructors should place appropriate emphasis on this part of the review.
4.3.3 Automation Competency. Occurrences of incidents and accidents due to a pilot’s lack of proficiency with aircraft automation have emphasized the need to ensure that all pilots are fully competent with the automated systems equipped in the aircraft flown.
Automation competency is the pilot’s ability to understand and operate a given aircraft’s automated systems. The flight instructor should consider the type of automation the pilot regularly uses before establishing the plan of action for conducting the pilot’s flight review. When conducting the check in an aircraft with automation, the instructor should evaluate the pilot’s automation competency. Pilots transitioning to TAA should receive specialized transition training from a qualified flight instructor with experience with the specific equipment used.
4.3.4 Angle of Attack (AOA) Systems. The FAA, along with the General Aviation Joint Safety Committee (GAJSC), is promoting AOA systems as one of the many safety initiatives aimed at reducing the General Aviation (GA) accident rate. AOA indicators will specifically target loss of control (LOC) accidents. LOC is the number one root cause of fatalities in GA. More than 25 percent of GA fatal accidents occur during the maneuvering phase of flight. Of those accidents, half involve stall/spin scenarios.
Technology such as AOA indicators can have a tremendous impact on reversing this
4-6 trend and are increasingly affordable for GA airplanes. During the flight review, if the airplane is equipped with an AOA indicator, the flight instructor should evaluate its use and correct interpretation of cues gained by referencing the AOA indicator by the pilot receiving the flight review. If the airplane is not equipped with an AOA indicator, the flight instructor should emphasize the importance of this item and evaluate the pilot’s general knowledge of aerodynamic principles relating to AOA.
4.3.5 R eview of Maneuvers and Procedures.
4.3.5.1 The maneuvers and procedures covered during the review are those that, in the opinion of the flight instructor conducting the review, are necessary for the pilot to perform to demonstrate that they can safely exercise the privileges of their pilot certificate. Accordingly, the flight instructor should evaluate the pilot’s skills and knowledge to the extent necessary to ensure that the pilot can safely operate within regulatory requirements throughout a wide range of conditions. The flight instructor should always include abnormal and emergency procedures applicable to the aircraft flown in the flight review. For a satisfactory flight review, the pilot should be able to perform all maneuvers in accordance with the ACS or PTS, as applicable, for the pilot certificate that they hold. Therefore, the FAA encourages the use of ACS/PTS during flight reviews.
4.3.5.2 The flight instructor may wish to prepare a preliminary plan of action for the flight review based on an interview or other assessment of the pilot’s qualifications and skills. See Appendix D for suggested interview questions.
Appendix D provides a sample flight instructor’s flight review checklist. The flight instructor should outline a sequence of maneuvers to the pilot taking the review. For example, this may include a cross-country flight to another airport with maneuvers accomplished while en route. It could also include a period of simulated instrument flight time. The flight instructor should request that the pilot conduct whatever preflight preparation is necessary to complete the planned flight. This preparation should include all items required in part 91, § 91.103, such as checking weather, calculating required runway lengths, calculating Weight and Balance (W&B), completing a flight log, filing a flight plan, and conducting the preflight inspection.
4.3.5.3 B efore beginning the flight portion of the review, the flight instructor should discuss various operational areas with the pilot. This oral review should include, but not be limited to, areas such as aircraft systems, speeds, performance, meteorological and other hazards (e.g., wind shear and wake turbulence), operations in controlled airspace, and abnormal and emergency procedures. The emphasis during this discussion should be on practical knowledge of recommended procedures and regulatory requirements.