6/29/15 Appendix 7 APPENDIX 7. NONTRADITIONAL OR UNFAMILIAR AIRPLANE SYSTEMS
OPERATIONS
1. DEFINITION. Engine, avionics, fuel systems, etc., that require operational practices that are outside the normal procedures utilized in standard category airplanes.
2. DISCUSSION.
a. Example Accident from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Records.
(1) The pilot had recently purchased the experimental, amateur-built airplane, which had a fuel system that differed from the designer’s plans. The original builder had modified the fuel system by relocating the fuel selector handle from a position between the front pilot’s legs to a position behind and above his or her left shoulder. There were no markings for the operating positions of the fuel selector handle, which were up for off, down for the right tank, and to the right for the left tank.
(2) The pilot received a one-half hour flight and ground check-out in the airplane by another pilot familiar with the airplane model. The check-out pilot reported that the pilot needed a seatback cushion to be in position to reach the rudder pedals, and that he had difficulty reaching the fuel selector handle while seated with the cushion added. During preflight, the pilot was not observed to visually check the fuel. A maintenance technician noted that when the pilot was seated in the airplane, he had difficulty reaching the fuel selector handle. Also, he gave the pilot a mirror to look over his shoulder to see the unmarked, nonlinear fuel sight gauges, which were located in the rear cockpit. The pilot declined an offer for additional fuel, saying he would be airborne for only about 1 hour and did not need fuel.
(3) Ground witnesses saw the airplane in straight and level flight about 350 to 500 feet over a residential area, then they heard a reduction of engine noise. The airplane was seen to pitch slightly nose-up; then it banked sharply to the right and descended nose-first into the ocean.
The fuel selector valve was found in an intermediate position, about one-third open between the engine’s feed line and the right tank, and about 2-4 percent open to the left tank.
(4) Conditions were simulated using another airplane of the same design to evaluate the maneuver required to switch tanks from the front seat. The simulation revealed that four actions were required to change the fuel selector in flight:
• Remove pilot’s hand from the control stick;
• Loosen shoulder harness;
• Rotate upper body to the extreme left to reach the fuel selector handle; and
• Rotate the handle to an unmarked (not logically oriented) position.
(5) During the evaluation, investigators noted a natural reaction for the pilot’s right foot to depress the right rudder pedal when turning in the seat to reach the fuel selector handle. With the right rudder depressed in flight, the airplane would pitch up slightly and bank to the right.
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b. Probable Cause. The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident as follows:
(1) The pilot’s diversion of attention from the operation of the airplane and his inadvertent application of right rudder that resulted in the loss of airplane control while attempting to manipulate the fuel selector handle.
(2) Also, the Board determined that the pilot’s inadequate preflight planning and preparation, specifically his failure to refuel the airplane, was causal.
(3) The Board determined that the builder’s decision to locate the unmarked fuel selector handle in a hard-to-access position, unmarked fuel quantity sight gauges, inadequate transition training by the pilot, and his total lack of experience in this type of airplane were factors in the accident.
c. Type-Certificated (TC) versus Experimental Airplanes.
(1) TC’d airplanes familiar to most pilots have standardized instrument panel layouts and system control locations; they are very similar from airplane to airplane. Most airplanes found in the training and rental fleet are of similar performance and equipment levels. Pilots have become accustomed to operating flaps, fuel systems, retractable landing gear, and engine controls in these TC’d airplanes, and can generally transition from one make/model to another without the need for extensive training.
(2) Builders of experimental airplanes are able to customize every aspect of their airplane to their own personal preferences. This extends to the installation of systems not found on standard airplanes in the training and rental fleet, such as the fuel valve location discussed in the example above. Builders also sometimes place familiar instruments and controls in unfamiliar locations on the panel or in the cockpit area. This is true even in seemingly identical examples of a particular design. The ability to completely customize the airplane is one reason builders choose to build their own, rather than purchase a standard airplane. The hazard in operating these airplanes is the potential for misuse or system mismanagement. The risks of this misuse or mismanagement can include an inadvertently induced abnormal or emergency situation.
(3) Unlike TC’d airplanes, many experimental airplanes do not have extensive pilot’s operating handbooks (POH) or other documentation outlining the unique nature of the systems or controls installed in that particular airplane. This places the burden on the pilot to become familiar with the specific systems and controls in the airplane. Take care to identify every control and system on board the airplane.
3. RECOMMENDED GROUND TRAINING. The pilot should spend sufficient time sitting in the airplane on the ground learning the positions of all controls so as to be able to locate each control without the need to spend time searching. The pilot should utilize familiarization drills such as the “blindfold test”, where an assistant calls out various controls and switches while the pilot locates them by memory. The pilot should not fly the airplane before gaining thorough familiarity with cockpit layout. The pilot should also seek advice from previous operators of the airplane, including the original builder. The kit or plan vendor may also have useful information and advice.
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4. RECOMMENDED FLIGHT TRAINING. Flying the airplane with a previous operator, a knowledgeable flight instructor, or the original builder, prior to operating the airplane solo will help the pilot understand the reasons why the installed controls are the way they are and what operational characteristics they have. This will also guard against any unusual handling characteristics that may arise from application of a control or system that may catch the pilot off-guard, as illustrated in the example above.
6/29/15 Appendix 8 APPENDIX 8. NONTRADITIONAL OR UNFAMILIAR AIRPLANE SYSTEM OR
COMPONENT MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS
1. DEFINITION. Engine, avionics, propellers, fuel systems, etc., that require maintenance practices that are outside the normal procedures utilized in standard category airplanes.
2. DISCUSSION.
a. Example Accident from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Records.
(1) Accident. The airplane made a forced landing after the horizontal stabilizer attachment failed in flight. The instructional flight departed with the intention of practicing takeoffs and landings. On the downwind leg, the pilots heard a loud bang. The airplane lurched nose-up, then nose-down. The flight instructor took control of the aircraft and informed the tower he had a flight control problem. He was able to land the aircraft using cross control inputs. The instructor inspected the airplane and determined that the right horizontal stabilizer had separated from the fuselage due to a stainless steel “L” bracket failure. The instructor attributed the failure to a loose bolt in the “L” bracket that allowed a vibration and caused metal fatigue of the component.
(2) The Probable Cause. This accident was caused by the fatigue failure of the attachment that secured the horizontal stabilizer to the fuselage (due to improper maintenance— Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) comment).
b. Systems and Hardware.
(1) Manufacturers of type-certificated (TC) airplanes, as well as manufacturers of components and systems installed in such airplanes, provide supporting maintenance and repair documentation that shows owners and maintenance personnel how to properly maintain and repair the airplane. These documents are available from several sources and readily accessed by anyone performing maintenance or repair on these airplanes.
(2) Extensive maintenance documentation typically is not available for amateur-built and other experimental aircraft. Components and systems installed in these airplanes are sometimes the same or very similar to those installed in TC’d airplanes, so maintenance guidance may be available. However, many experimental airplanes incorporate components and systems not found on standard airplanes. Much like the experimental airframe itself, maintenance and repair guidance may be difficult to find or even unavailable for these components or systems.
(3) In the accident described above, the airplane suffered a failure due to improperly secured hardware, which led to a fatigue failure. This illustrates why owners and operators of experimental airplanes must make an extra effort to find and follow appropriate maintenance and repair guidance for their airplanes.
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3. RECOMMENDED GROUND TRAINING.
a. Maintenance. As mentioned under subparagraph 2b above, there are many possible sources of information regarding maintenance and repair of experimental airplanes or modified TC’d airplanes. Owners/operators should explore all avenues when seeking such information.
Also, owners/operators should develop maintenance routines that will aid in early detection of potential maintenance problems or continued airworthiness issues. Regular attendance at local and national aviation events will also expose the owner/operator to others who operate similar airplanes or systems, allowing for the sharing of information among all operators. Educational and informational forums at these events are also a good source of information.
b. Organization Information Sources. National organizations such as the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA) offer both print and electronic publications that will support the maintenance and operation of experimental airplanes. Also, many of the more popular designs have active “type clubs” or other user groups that provide a good source of information relating to complete airframes as well as individual components and systems. These type clubs often have related Web sites that offer information along with a method of contacting operators of similar airplanes or systems. The owner/operator of an experimental airplane needs to thoroughly explore all of these sources.
c. Other Sources. Another source of guidance is the current edition of Advisory Circular (AC) 43.13-1, Acceptable Methods, Techniques, and Practices - Aircraft Inspection and Repair.
This AC contains methods, techniques, and practices acceptable to the Administrator for the inspection and repair of non-pressurized areas of civil aircraft, only when there are no manufacturer repair or maintenance instructions.
6/29/15 Appendix 9 APPENDIX 9. SPECIALTY AIRPLANE FAMILY
1. DEFINITION. Aircraft in this family may possess one or more of the following characteristics:
• One-of-a-kind or highly modified airplane;
• Limited kit production;
• Unique;
• Unstable;
• Extremely high power-to-weight ratio,
• Jet-powered;
• Turboprop-powered;
• Rocket-powered; or
• Other unconventional powerplant.
2. DISCUSSION. One of the core principles of the experimental aircraft world is the freedom to design, create, or modify. Nowhere is this more evident than with the very special one-of-akind designs or highly modified existing designs. In some sense, this can be the most exciting form of homebuilding as leading-edge products emerge. However, this can also be one of the highest risk categories of airplanes due to a very high degree of undetected hazards and flaws.
a. Example Accident from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Records.
(1) The single-seat, twin-engine, homebuilt airplane was of the pilot’s own design, with a T-tail and a forward canard. The engines were mounted on the inboard trailing edge of each wing facing aft, in a pusher type configuration. The aircraft had not yet flown.
(2) During previous high-speed taxiing tests (35-55 knots), pitch was nonresponsive; the nose would not lift to a positive angle of attack (AOA). Ballast was added to move the center of gravity (CG) aft and a larger canard control surface (elevator) was added. This allowed the desired pitch control at 45-50 knots.
(3) The pilot was performing high-speed taxi tests and routinely raised the nose of the airplane up during the test runs. An onboard recorder showed a maximum of 9 degrees pitch during these runs. On the last run, pitch rose rapidly from 8 degrees to 45 degrees. The airplane became airborne and rose to about 120 feet, started a right-hand turn, stalled, and impacted terrain in a flat attitude. Probable cause was the pilot’s failure to maintain pitch control of the airplane.
b. Become Familiar With Your Airplane. It is critical that pilots who are interested in pursuing an airplane model from this category become highly familiar with every aspect of their new airplane prior to the first flight. An option would be to seek analysis of likely performance and handling characteristics from aviation departments of universities or colleges, aircraft design software, or other sources of aeronautical design analysis. Not taking advantage of every opportunity to understand your aircraft before your first flight can result in a very bad outcome.
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3. RECOMMENDED GROUND AND FLIGHT TRAINING. With the aid of an experienced certificated flight instructor (CFI) knowledgeable in the aircraft develop a specific and customized lesson plan for your specific airplane. This plan should encompass all the specific parameters that make your specialty airplane unlike most other airplanes. Above all else, seek specialty training from an instructor who has experience in your type or a type that is very similar to your airplane. Do not think you can just “feel” your way into understanding the special characteristics of your airplane. For example, an amateur-built airplane equipped with a commercially available turbine engine should consider training sources such as operators or training centers who have established training on that specific engine.
6/29/15 Appendix 10 APPENDIX 10. TRANSITIONAL GUIDANCE
1. TRANSITIONING TO HIGHER PERFORMANCE AIRPLANES. Transitioning to a complex airplane, or a high-performance airplane, can be demanding for most pilots without previous experience. Additional training is required by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61, § 61.31 (e) and/or (f) to operate complex and high-performance aircraft. Increased performance, complexity, and additional systems require enhanced planning, judgment, and piloting skills. Accomplish the transition to these types of airplanes in a systematic manner, through a structured course of training administered by a qualified flight instructor.
a. Turbocharged Engine. The turbocharged engine allows the pilot to maintain sufficient cruise power at high altitudes where there is less drag, which means faster true airspeeds and increased range with fuel economy. Aggressive and/or abrupt throttle movements increase the possibility of over-boosting, which could damage the engine.
b. Retractable Landing Gear. Retractable landing gear systems may be operated mechanically, hydraulically, electrically, or may employ a combination of the two systems. Pilot knowledge of the system, including procedures for extension when the system malfunctions, is vital.
c. Fuel Systems. Complex and high-performance airplanes may have complicated fuel systems. This can lead to fuel mismanagement. The 2009 Nall report states that almost one-third of fuel-related accidents were a result of fuel mismanagement.
d. Performance. Power management is a significant part of flying high-performance airplanes, so you should learn to “fly the numbers.” The aerodynamics that allow the airplane to fly at a higher airspeed makes them less forgiving than slower airplanes.
e. Turbopropeller Transition. The turbopropeller-powered airplane flies and handles just like any other airplane of comparable size and weight; the aerodynamics are the same. The major difference between flying a turbopropeller and other non-turbine-powered airplanes is in the engine and systems. The engine is different and requires operating procedures that are unique to gas turbine engines.
f. Jet Transition. Due to their performance, flight characteristics, and complicated systems, it is imperative that a pilot receive training in the particular jet from a knowledgeable and experienced instructor.
g. High Altitude Training. Not only are there physiological considerations, there are aerodynamic and handling considerations in operating at the airplane’s altitude limit; all this is critical to safety. Knowledge gained from this training is invaluable, even if you stay below flight level 250. There are many training courses and advisory materials available.
h. Avionics/Flight Automation. Pilots and aircraft owners have taken advantage of the expanding technical evolution of modern avionics and flight automation equipment. Glass cockpits are available for virtually every new 14 CFR part 23 airplane, as well as for most experimental designs. Global Positioning System (GPS) positioning on a moving map, real time
6/29/15 Appendix 10 weather, terrain/traffic awareness, and modern autopilots have made a significant inroads in the General Aviation (GA) fleet. Pilots also employ handheld equipment not installed in the airplane much more frequently than in the past. While this equipment can make the aircraft safer and help avoid loss-of-control situations, pilots must be fully trained on its use. Similarly, over-reliance on automated flight systems has resulted in accidents: while advanced avionics and flight automation equipment can increase safety, pilots must be proficient in manual flying in the event of automation malfunction.
2. TRANSITIONING TO LOWER PERFORMANCE AIRPLANES. There are just as many challenges transitioning from high-performance to low-performance airplanes. The prudent pilot respects the challenges of flying a new airplane regardless of whether the transition is from low performance to high performance or vice versa. For example:
• The effects of weather will be more pronounced on low-performance airplanes.
• It will be affected more (as a percentage) by headwinds.
• Turbulence may be more pronounced.
• The ability to handle crosswind landings may be reduced.
• Avionics may be less capable.
• Handling characteristics will be different.
NOTE: The prudent pilot respects the challenges of flying a new airplane, regardless of whether the transition is from low-performance to high-performance or vice versa. Transitioning from a multi-crew airplane to a single-pilot airplane creates its own challenges.
3. INDUSTRY-PROVIDED TRAINING SYLLABI: TYPE-CERTIFIED (TC) AIRCRAFT.
a. GA Master Syllabus. To address the need for a standard training syllabus for pilots transitioning into high performance aircraft, the General Aviation Manufacturer’s Association (GAMA) has developed a Transition Training Master Syllabus (GAMA Publication No. 5). This document is a general outline of the items that can be included in the ground and flight training of pilots transitioning into specific airplanes. The master syllabus lists groups of airplane makes and models manufactured that are sufficiently similar so that a pilot with proficiency in one airplane model would not normally require full transition training to operate another model in that group.
b. Syllabus Use. The master syllabus developed by GAMA is intended for use by manufacturers, flight instructors, training organizations, aviation publishers and others to develop transition training guides for specific airplanes or groups of airplane models. If necessary, these transition training guides could provide for differences in training to cover variations in model groupings. These syllabi can be used to produce transition training guides for any high performance airplane. The GAMA master syllabus is not intended for use in developing training programs or guides for pilots transitioning into airplanes for which a type rating is required by § 61.31(a), for airplanes that do not meet the definition of a complex aircraft found
6/29/15 Appendix 10 Page 3 (and 4) in § 61.1, or for aircraft certificated in the experimental category. Furthermore, it was not developed for rotorcraft, gliders, or lighter-than-air aircraft. Pilots transitioning into different complex and high-performance aircraft models may wish to use the transition training guide as an aid to conversion to new models. The GAMA Transition Training Master Syllabus is available at the GAMA Web site, www.gama.aero.
4. TRAINING GUIDANCE. You can find the guidance for transition training in many publications including, but not limited to the current editions of:
• AC 61-67, Stall and Spin Awareness Training.
• AC 61-107, Operations of Aircraft at Altitudes Above 25,000 Feet Mean Sea Level (MSL) and/or Mach Numbers Greater Than .75.
• FAA-H-8083-3, Airplane Flying Handbook.
• FAA-H-8083-25, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.
• Turbine Pilot’s Flight Manual by Gregory N. Brown, Published by ASA.
• The Advanced Pilot’s Flight Manual, by William K. Kershner, Published by Blackwell Publishing.
5. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION. Additional information can found at:
• Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA), http://www.eaa.org.
• Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) Online, http://www.aopa.org/.
• GAMA, http://www.gama.aero/.
• FAA Safety Team, http://faasafety.gov/.