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(1) The test pilot should apply carb heat and also clear the airspace below the aircraft before starting the descent. The first descent should be at a shallow angle, at low rpm and last for 30 seconds, not exceeding 1.5 times the estimated stall speed of the aircraft. During long, low-power descents, the pilot must be aware of rapid engine cooling, usually marked by a large drop in oil and CHT. If a noticeable drop occurs, increase the engine rpm and reduce the angle of descent. If not corrected, the repeated rapid cooling of the engine may cause thermal shock to the engine cylinders and eventually cause cylinder head cracking or seizure.
(2) Conduct each test as before, but increase the time by 30 seconds until you either are (1) limited by the engine manufacturer’s restrictions or (2) you reach a 5-minute descent.
Record temperatures, pressures, altitudes, and airspeeds data for climbs and descents for addition into the aircraft’s flight manual.
4-8. AIRSPEED IN-FLIGHT ACCURACY CHECK. The following procedures are commonly used to calibrate airspeed:
a. The measured course method uses a stopwatch with readily identifiable landmarks at each end. The landmarks should be a known distance apart, and the length of the course should be at least 1 to 2 miles long.
(1) The pilot must fly a precision course, maintaining a constant altitude, such as 1,000 feet, constant airspeed, constant magnetic heading, and constant engine rpm. The pilot must record the temperature, altitude, indicated airspeed and the time over each landmark for both directions. The average of these speeds is the ground speed of the aircraft. An E6B computer will convert the temperature, altitude, and ground speed into true indicated airspeed for the tests.
(2) The air should be as smooth as possible with a minimum of turbulence and wind.
The wind velocity, while conducting the test, should not exceed approximately 10 knots.
NOTE: The difference between the E6B computer readings and the aircraft’s groundspeed readings is the error in the instrument and the error caused by the installation of the system in the aircraft.
(3) The pilot should make several airspeed calibration runs in opposite headings for selected airspeeds the pilot wants to check. Such accuracy test runs should start at the lowest safe airspeed and work up to cruise speed using 10-mph/knot increments. Most errors will be found at the low end of the speed range due to the angle of the pitot mast to the relative wind and/or the location of the static ports.
NOTE: Flight testing of all amateur-built aircraft is restricted to a flight-test area. If a pilot must run additional aircraft tests requiring more airspace, the pilot should notify FSDO personnel who issued the aircraft’s operating limitations, and request a change to those limitations. The FAA reminds you that the pilot must operate an experimental aircraft using the aircraft’s operating limitations. Otherwise, the FAA may take certificate action.
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b. GPS method provides an accurate and easy-to-use means of determining speed during the flight-test period. Since it measures ground speed it will be necessary to calculate true airspeed, and from that confirm indicated airspeed.
(1) A triangular course with each leg 120 degrees apart from the previous one will ensure accurate results in any wind condition. The ground speeds from each of the three legs should be averaged to get the no-wind ground speed, which is equal to the true airspeed.
(2) A true airspeed can be calculated using an E6B or other aviation computer if the indicated airspeed, temperature, altitude, and barometric pressure are noted for each test course.
This true airspeed can be compared to the previously determined no-wind ground speed in step one for clarity.
(3) The pilot must fly precisely during these tests to get accurate numbers. Altitude, airspeed, heading and engine rpm need to be held as steady as possible during each test. Allow the aircraft to stabilize for at least one minute after any change in heading, altitude, or power setting before taking a speed reading.
(4) Most errors will be found at the low end of the speed range due to the angle of the pitot mast to the relative wind and/or the location of the static port(s).
c. If the aircraft has retractable gear or flaps, test the accuracy of the airspeed indicator using applicable method with the gear/flaps up and down.
d. Record all the data in a log if not automatically recording on an electronic Primary Flight Display (PFD) unit.
Par 5-1 Page 61 CHAPTER 5. EXPANDING THE ENVELOPE “Checklist! Checklist!! Checklist!!!” Jim Byers, Flight Instructor/Examiner SECTION 1. GENERAL
5-1. OBJECTIVE. Move from a known flight environment to an unknown flight environment using a series of planned and carefully executed steps.
a. Before beginning the next series of test flights, the FAA highly recommends that the aircraft undergo the same condition inspection that would normally only be done annually at this time. The FAA strongly recommends that the builder and/or pilot take the time to inspect the aircraft because within the previous 10 hours, the test pilot has subjected the aircraft to a “shakedown cruise.”
b. During the inspection, check the torque paint marks on the engine mounts, propeller bolts, and landing gear. Double check the flight control hinges and rod end bearings for attachment and play. Check all cable installations, cable tension, and control travel, and complete all the standard inspection and maintenance items. This inspection also should include checking the oil and fuel filters for metal or other forms of contamination.
c. Even if there have been no indications of CO contamination, perform another CO test using the floodlight procedure—review Chapter 1, Section g—or an industrial CO test meter.
There is a strong possibility that operational vibration and landing stresses may have opened new paths for CO to enter the cockpit.
SECTION 2. HOURS 11 THROUGH 20 “Fly Scared!” Admiral Jack Ready, USN
5-2. OBJECTIVE. Focus the next 10 hours of flight testing on stall speed, best rate of climb speed, best angle of climb speed, and slow flight. The FAA recommends that stall speed tests be conducted with the aircraft’s fuel tanks full.
NOTE: Stall speeds, best rate of climb, best angle of climb, best glide speed, and various slow flight maneuvers are best and most safely performed with the aid of an angle of attack indicator (AOAI). The installation, calibration and proper use of such a device is highly recommended.
a. As with any unknown, approach flight testing slowly, incrementally, and follow the flight-test plan. The stall test objective is to verify the aircraft conforms to the expected responses for this particular design in this flight regime. Acquire a thorough description of how the aircraft is expected to behave near, at, and after stall. This provides a reference point to compare against the flight-test results. To improve safety and reduce the possibility of spins, the aircraft should be tested with a forward CG loading. Starting the stall tests at 8,000 feet AGL is good for most homebuilts, but it depends on the aircraft type. Make clearing turns and stabilize the airspeed and altitude. The first full stall should be conducted with power off, no flaps, and
Par 5-2 Page 62 gear up if applicable. After clearing the area, reduce the airspeed to 1.3 times the predicted stall speed and trim.
NOTE: Make sure the engine’s idle speed is properly set; faster idle speeds result in higher nose-up attitudes and lower indicated stall speeds.
NOTE: Don’t trim within 10 knots of stall.
NOTE: Some clean, high performance aircraft may not have any noticeable pre stall buffet. The actual stall may be abrupt and violent with a large amount of wing or nose drop.
b. The preferred pre stall and stall behavior is an unmistakable warning buffet starting lightly about 5 to 10 mph/knots above the eventual stall speed, growing in intensity as the aircraft slows down.
c. The desired stall characteristics should be a straight forward nose drop with no tendency for roll or pitch up. This docile and forgiving behavior implies a stall that has started at the wing root and progressed smoothly outboard. The buffet warns the pilot about separated airflow over the wings and or tail in the form of the buffet. The ailerons will continue to operate in the attached air flow until the aircraft’s stall speed is reached and the wing stalls.
d. Use the same procedures as on the first flight. Secure cockpit items and use carburetor heat. Begin by stabilizing in level flight at 15-20 knots above the predicted stall speed.
When stable, make a control input in each axis; roll, pitch and yaw. The inputs should be just enough to generate about 3-5 degrees of aircraft response, then move the controls right back to neutral (usually a 1-2 second input pulse).
(1) Then watch for the aircraft response. In roll, is there any accompanying adverse yaw? Does the aircraft stop rolling when the input is released to neutral? In pitch, does the aircraft return to the previous attitude? Is there any tendency for the pitch to continue to rise after releasing the stick? Does the pitch attitude continue to oscillate? The same questions apply in the yaw axis. If all is as expected, slow 3-5 knots and repeat the process.
(2) At each incremental airspeed point ensure that you still have nose down control authority, since that is your most important recovery input. Make note of any changes in response as the aircraft gets slower (it is normal for the aircraft to be more sluggish, but it should still respond positively). Make note of any warning cues. Watch closely for any uncommanded motions. At the first sign of any uncommanded motion (nose rise, or nose slice, wing rock, or nose drop), recover the aircraft by lowering the nose, adding power and increasing speed.
Uncommanded motions are likely linked to being at a higher angle of attack than previously flown. The most correct initial response is to lower that angle of attack with a nose down input.
Even if the uncommanded motion is a roll off, the quickest way to stop it is most likely a pitch down, not a countering roll input. After airspeed increases and aircraft still continues to roll use opposite rudder to stop it with ailerons neutralized.
e. If there are no surprises down to 3-5 knots above expected stall speed, then continue to a complete stall by applying backpressure on the stick/yoke to slow the airplane down at
Par 5-2 Page 63 roughly 1 knot/mph per second. Stall warning should occur about 5 knots/mph before the stall itself. Do not depend too much on an uncalibrated stall warning system.
(1) As the airplane decelerates, ensure that the airplane requires an increasingly heavier pull force. If the force lightens or changes to a push force, abandon the test. Once you get to the stall, initiate recovery and record the altitude required to return to level flight as well as the stall speed. Also make note of aircraft responses during the recovery such as wing rock, secondary stall or any uncommanded motions. All these observations need to be compared in your post- flight analysis to the expected behavior written down before the test.
NOTE: Some airplanes reach the up elevator stop before the wing stalls.
This is acceptable as long as the elevator has the authority to flare the aircraft at its maximum landing weight with the forward most CG allowed for that weight. Also, at the stall, many airplanes tend to roll toward one wing or the other. A properly designed and rigged airplane will be able to maintain the wings within 15 degrees of level with normal aileron inputs.
Make sure you’re not cross-controlling the airplane (the slip-skid ball is centered). If you need excessive aileron or rudder inputs to keep the airplane straight and the wings level, abort the test. On the ground assess the airplane for miss-rigging or some inadvertent wing twist or asymmetry.
f. Practice the same stall sequence several times at a ½-mph/knot-per-second deceleration rate to determine the power off, 1-G stall speed. Practice the same stall series with flaps, starting with the lowest setting first and working slowly to the full flap configuration.
Record the findings.
g. After exploring the stall and recovery behavior in a slow deceleration with ball centered, try a series of stalls with flaps up and flaps down, with a faster deceleration. Do not exceed the deceleration rate expected in normal operations.
5-3. STALLS.
a. Power-On Stalls. As before, use the same procedures moving from the known to the unknown. Increase power incrementally and run a stall test at each new power setting until full power is reached. We do not advise jumping straight from idle to full power with the resultant large changes in pitch attitude, torque reaction, and slipstream effect on the wing and tail.
b. Conducting Power-On Stalls. The FAA recommends that you stabilize the aircraft in level flight at low cruise power. The power-on stall is reached by slowly increasing the power to the desired power setting. The pilot then steadily increases the pitch attitude until the aircraft experiences the stall buffet. Remember to keep the ball centered until the onset of the stall buffet.
(1) The power-on stall may be more likely to cause a wing drop than one at idle. This is due to torque reaction and because the propeller slipstream tends to keep the flow of higher velocity air over the inboard, or root, section of the wing despite the higher angle of attack. This allows the root portion of the wing to continue flying after the wing tip stalls, dropping a wing.
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(2) Tip stalls usually do not give advance warning and will almost invariably result in severe wing drop. These stalls are more likely to result in a spin, even if the controls are not mishandled. If the spin does not develop, considerably more height will be lost in the recovery than if the stall had been straight-ahead nose down.
(3) If the pilot yields to instinct and tries to correct the wing drop with aileron, it could result in a spin. Since a sharp wing drop could be regarded as the onset of spin auto-rotation, the recommended corrective action is reducing power, full opposite rudder, and lowering the nose to the horizon or below. Take care to avoid this situation until the aircraft’s spin behavior has been tested.
(4) Perform the same sequence of events for power-on stalls as power-off stalls, unless limited by the designer’s instructions. Record all findings in a log if not automatically recording on an electronic PFD for the aircraft’s flight manual.
NOTE: Aircraft with retractable gear will have to go through a separate series of slow flight and stall checks with gear extended, with and without flaps. Record the different stall speeds for each configuration in the aircraft’s flight manual.
FIGURE 7. CLIMB AIRSPEED AND ALTITUDE GRAPH
c. Best Rate of Climb Speed Tests. To determine the best rate of climb for the aircraft, the FAA suggests the following procedures:
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(1) Perform the tests in smooth air, free from thermal activity. Select an altitude such as 1,000 feet AGL, as a BASE attitude. Use a heading 90 degrees to the wind, and for the best results, reverse the heading 180 degrees after each climb test.
(2) Begin a full throttle climb well below the predetermined BASE altitude and stabilize at a preselected airspeed approximately 15 mph/knots above the predicted best rate of climb speed. As the aircraft passes through the base altitude, begin a 1-minute time check.
(3) After 1 minute, record the altitude gained. Descend down below the base altitude.
Decrease the airspeed by 5 mph/knots and run the test again. After each succeeding test, the pilot should decrease the airspeed by 5 mph/knots until reaching an airspeed that is 10 mph/knots higher than the stall speed of the aircraft. Record the airspeed and altitude gained for each climb on a graph similar to Figure 7. The airspeed that shows the greatest gain in altitude is the aircraft’s best rate of climb speed (Vy).
FIGURE 8. BEST RATE OF CLIMB SPEED GRAPH
d. Best Angle of Climb Speed Tests. You can find the best angle of climb speed can by using the same chart developed for the best rate of climb tests. Draw a line (tangent) from the zero rate of climb feet per minute (see Figure 8) outward to a point on the rate of climb airspeed curve. The airspeed that the line intersects is the best rate of climb airspeed. The airspeed that the line intersects is the best angle of climb airspeed.
e. Slow Flight Test. For added safety, the slow flight tests should be performed at 6,000 AGL or higher to allow room for spin recovery. These tests primarily show the pilot the aircraft’s handling qualities at the minimum gear up/down airspeeds and power settings.
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(1) You should do the tests with and without flaps. Start the tests at airspeed of 1.3 times the stall speed of the aircraft. Once the aircraft is stabilized and maintaining its altitude, reduce the airspeed by 5 mph/knots. Maintain the altitude. Keep reducing the airspeed until approaching a stall.
(2) Maintain 5 mph/knots above the previously determined stall speed; this is the initial slow flight airspeed. Practice with each flap setting, noting its effect on the aircraft’s performance. If the aircraft has retractable gear, test in all gear and flap combinations. These tests will have to be run later in the flight-test program—but with the aircraft at gross weight—to determine the actual slow flight airspeed and stall speeds.
(3) Remember, to help reduce the possibility of unplanned stalls in slow flight configurations, avoid bank angles of more than 5 degrees. When all the test data has been evaluated, and if the aircraft is equipped with a stall warning horn or indicator, set the stall warning at 5 mph/knots above the aircraft’s highest stall speed.
SECTION 3. HOURS 21 THROUGH 35: STABILITY AND CONTROL CHECKS “A superior pilot uses his superior judgment to avoid those situations which require the use of superior skill.” Old Aviation Proverb
5-4. OBJECTIVE. Determine the aircraft’s stability limits and range of control.
5-5. GENERAL. You must do two things before declaring that the aircraft is controllable throughout the normal range of speeds per part 91, § 91.319, Aircraft Having Experimental Certificates: Operating Limitations.
a. First. Perform another complete inspection of the aircraft, including oil changes and fuel system filter checks.
b. Second. Carry out a close examination of the stability and control characteristics of the aircraft. Stability and control checks will be centered around the three axes of the aircraft:
longitudinal or roll axis (ailerons), the lateral or pitching axis (elevators), and the vertical or yaw axis (rudder).
c. All Tests Need a Starting Point. The starting point for stability and control checks is called the state of equilibrium. An aircraft is said to be in a state of equilibrium when it experiences no acceleration and remains in a steady trimmed condition until the force or moment balance is disturbed by an atmospheric irregularity or by pilot input.
Par 5-5 Page 67 FIGURE 9. STATIC STABILITY
5-6. DEFINITIONS.
a. Positive Static Stability. When an aircraft tends to return to the state of initial equilibrium position following a disturbance.
b. Neutral Static Stability. When an aircraft remains in equilibrium in a “new” position, following a disturbance from an initial equilibrium position.
c. Negative Static Stability. When an aircraft tends to move further in the same direction as the disturbance that moved it from the initial equilibrium position.
NOTE: See Figure 9 for a graphic of these three stability states.
Par 5-6 Page 68 FIGURE 10. TIME
d. Dynamic Stability. The time history of the movement of the aircraft in response to its static stability tendencies following an initial disturbance from equilibrium. Refer to Figure 10.
e. Test for Static Longitudinal Stability.
(1) This test should be done first. All tests should be conducted with the aircraft in the forward of center CG. Climb to at least 6,000 feet AGL and trim the aircraft for zero stick force in straight and level flight at low cruising speed.
NOTE: Do not retrim the aircraft once the test has begun.
(2) Apply a light “pull” force and stabilize at an airspeed about 10 percent less than the trimmed cruise speed. At this reduced airspeed, it should require a “pull” force to maintain the slower speed.
(a) If it requires a “pull” force, pull a little further back on the stick and stabilize the airspeed at about 20 percent below the initial cruise trim speed.
(b) If it requires a still greater “pull” force to maintain this lower airspeed, the aircraft has positive static longitudinal stability.
(c) If at either test points, no “pull” force is required to maintain the reduced airspeeds, the aircraft has neutral static longitudinal stability.
(d) If either of these test points requires a “push” force to maintain the reduced airspeed then the aircraft has negative static longitudinal stability.
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(3) Repeat another series of static longitudinal stability tests using a “push” force on the control stick. At an airspeed 10 percent above the trim cruise speed, the control stick should require a “push” force to maintain the airspeed. If a “pull” force is required, the aircraft has negative static longitudinal stability.
WARNING: If the aircraft exhibits negative static longitudinal stability, seek professional advice on correcting the problem before further flight.
(4) After confirming the aircraft has positive static longitudinal stability, the pilot can check for short-period positive dynamic longitudinal stability. First, trim the aircraft to fly straight and level at normal trim cruise speed. With a smooth, but fairly rapid motion, push the nose down a few degrees.
(a) Quickly reverse the input to nose up to bring the pitch attitude back to trim attitude. As the pitch attitude reaches trim attitude, release the stick but keep your hands close to it. The aircraft with positive dynamic longitudinal stability will oscillate briefly about the trim attitude before stopping at the trim attitude position.
(b) To test the aircraft for long-period positive dynamic longitudinal stability, begin from trimmed, straight and level flight. Without re-trimming, pull (or push) the stick to a speed about 5 mph/knots off trim and release the stick. You don’t have to stabilize at the new speed. Expect the aircraft to oscillate slowly about the trim airspeed a number of times before the motion dampens out. If there is significant friction in the control system, the aircraft may settle at a speed somewhat different from the original trim speed.
(c) If the amplitude increases with time, the dynamic longitudinal stability is negative or divergent. This is not necessarily dangerous as long as the rate of divergence is not too great. It does mean, however, the aircraft will be difficult to trim and will require frequent pilot attention.
(d) An aircraft with long-period neutral dynamic longitudinal stability will continue to oscillate through a series of increasing/decreasing airspeeds and never return to the original trim airspeed.
f. Lateral-directional Stability Control Tests. Lateral (dihedral effect) and directional stability tests show if the aircraft tends to raise the low wing in a sideslip once the ailerons are freed. They also determine if the rudder is effective in maintaining directional control.
CAUTION: This test may impose high flight loads on the aircraft. Do not exceed the design maneuvering speed or any other airspeed limitation.
(1) To check lateral and directional stability, the aircraft should be trimmed for level flight at a low cruise setting and an altitude above 5,000 feet AGL. Slowly enter a sideslip by maintaining the aircraft’s heading with rudder and ailerons. The aircraft should be able to hold a heading with rudder at a bank angle of 10 degrees or the bank angle appropriate for full rudder deflection. The control forces and deflection should increase steadily, although not necessarily in constant proportions with one another-in some cases, rudder forces may lighten until either the rudder or the ailerons reach full deflection or the maximum sideslip angle is reached.