cross-check the navigation data with the other two units to determine which one of the three units is in error. Two independent systems alone will not work. Some examples of this concept follow:
(1) Loran-C/VOR/VOR
(2) Loran-C/Weather radar (in map mode)/automatic direction finder (ADF)
(3) VOR/Loran-C/Omega
(4) Three separate inertial navigation system (INS) units
(5) Inertial/Loran-C/VOR
(6) Inertial/Loran-C/GPS
(7) Loran-C/VFR Pilotage/VOR
(8) Loran-C/Ground-based radar/GPS
r. R, for Automation. Here are some suggestions for pilots on how to work effectively with either of the following labor-saving equipment: old style electromechanical displays or the new age glass cockpit.
(1) Learn the operating requirements and limitations of aircraft equipment -- before flight. This is sound advice for both sophisticated computer systems and the basic systems of any aircraft.
(2) Avoid over-reliance on any equipment, whether it is a flight management computer, RNAV, altitude alerter, or autopilot. Pilots should remember that advanced technology equipment is an aid to, not a replacement for, proper cockpit management.
(3) While using navigation devices, pilots should maintain position awareness at all times. They should back up FMS's with raw data wherever possible, and they should avoid letting the equipment take command.
(4) Use aeronautical charts. A common theme in track deviations involving advanced technology aircraft is, "We were cleared to a point not on the FMS route of flight, and it took several minutes to get the charts out and program the new waypointsi Pilots should keep all relevant charts handy and use them to track the flight's progress.
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(5) Plan programming chores for times of relatively low workload. Pilots should make waypoint and other data entries only when there are no pressing demands of general cockpit management.
(6) Avoid spending a lot of time trying to "force" data into a computer. If things do not work correctly, pilots should revert to basic modes of control.
(7) Determine what equipment can do before using it. If equipment fails to operate within expected parameters or performs in an unexpected manner, pilots should be prepared to take manual control of the aircraft.
20 Par 5
AC 90-92 2/5/93 Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1. LORAN-C OCEANIC AND NAS COVERAGE DIAGRAMS
LORAN-C NAS COVERAGE DIAGRAM Canadian West Coast Chain - 5990
PARAMETERS ID TRANSMITTER POWER (KW) Contour: SNR -10 db; Oceanic GDOP 7,700 ft/us M Williams Lake 400 : NAS GDOP 4,200 ft/us Shoal Cove 560 • NAS Contour Symbology:
Y George 1400 • Average Atmospheric Noise: 64 db Z Port Hardy 335 • Surface to FL 600
• Flight Verified 60° 55° 50° 45° 40° 35° 140° 110° 135° 115° 130° 125° 120°
AC 90-92 Appendix 1 2/5/93
LORAN-C NAS COVERAGE DIAGRAM United States West Coast Chain - 9940
ID TRANSMITTER POWER (KW) PARAMETERS M Fallon 400 Contour: SNR -10 db; Oceanic GDOP 7,700 ft/us W George 1400 • NAS GDOP 4,200 ft/us Middleton 400 • NAS Contour Symbology: - - - Searchlight 560 • Average Atmospheric Noise: 61 db
• Surface to FL 600
• Flight Verified 55° 50° 45° 40° 35° 30° 25° W 130° 125° 120° 115° 110° 105°
AC 90-92 2/5/93 Appendix 1
LORAN-C NAS COVERAGE DIAGRAM North Central United States Chain - 8290
ID TRANSMITTER POWER (KW PARAMETERS M Havre 540 • Contour: SNR -10 db; Oceanic GDOP 7,700 ft/us W Baudette 800 • NAS GDOP 4,200 ft/us Gillette 540 • NAS Contour Symbology:
Williams Lake 400 • Average Atmospheric Noise: 61 db
• Surface to FL 600
• Flight Verified 60° 55° 50° 45° 40° 35° 125° 85° 120° 115° 110° 105° 100° 95° 90°
AC 90-92 Appendix 1 2/5/93
LORAN-C NAS COVERAGE DIAGRAM South Central United States Chain - 9610
ID TRANSMITTER POWER (KW) PARAMETERS M Boise City 900 Contour: SNR -10 db; Oceanic GDOP 7,700 ft/us Gillette 540 • NAS GDOP 4,200 ft/us W Searchlight 560 • NAS Contour Symbology: - - - Las Cruces 540 • Average Atmospheric Noise: 61 db
• Surface to FL 600 Raymondville 540 • Flight Verified Z Grangeville 800 50° 45° 40° 35° 30° 25° 20° W 125° 120° 115° 110° 105° 100° 95° 90° 85°
AC 90-92 2/5/93 Appendix 1
LORAN-C NAS COVERAGE DIAGRAM United States Great Lakes Chain - 8970
ID TRANSMITTER POWER (KW PARAMETERS M Dana 400 Contour: SNR -10 db; Oceanic GDOP 7,700 ft/us W Malone 800 • NAS GDOP 4,200 ft/us Seneca 800 • NAS Contour Symbology: - Y Baudette 800 • Average Atmospheric Noise: 61 db
• Surface to FL 600 Boise City 800
• Flight Verified 60° 55° 50° 45° 35° 30° 25° 20° 105° 100° 95° 90° 85° 80° 75° 70° 65°
AC 90-92 Appendix 1 2/5/93
LORAN-C NAS COVERAGE DIAGRAM Southeast United States Chain - 7980
ID TRANSMITTER POWER (KW) PARAMETERS M Malone 800 • Contour: SNR -10 db; Oceanic GDOP 7,700 ft/us W Grangeville 800 • NAS GDOP 4,200 ft/us Raymondville 540 • NAS Contour Symbology: - Y Jupiter 350 • Average Atmospheric Noise: 61 db • Surface to FL 600 Z Carolina Beach 600 • Flight Verified 50° 40° 35° 30° 25° 20° 15° W 105° 100° 95° 90° 85° 80° 75° 70° 65° W
AC 90-92 2/5/93 Appendix 1
LORAN-C NAS COVERAGE DIAGRAM Northeast United States Chain - 9960
ID TRANSMITTER POWER (KW) PARAMETERS M Seneca 800 • Contour: SNR -10 db; Oceanic GDOP 7,700 ft/us W Caribou 790 • NAS GDOP 4,200 ft/us Nantucket 350 • NAS Contour Symbology: - Y Carolina Beach 600 Average Atmospheric Noise: 61 db
• Surface to FL 600 Z Dana 400
• Flight Verified 50° 45° 40° 35° 30° 25° 85° 80° 75° 70° 65°
AC 90-92 Appendix 1 2/5/93
LORAN-C OCEANIC COVERAGE DIAGRAM Canadian East Coast Chain - 5930
ID TRANSMITTER POWER (KW) PARAMETERS M Caribou 790 • Contour: SNR -10 db; Oceanic GDOP 7,700 ft/ps Nantucket 400 • Average Atmospheric Noise: 61 db
• Surface to FL 600 Cape Race 1030 Z Fox Harbour 800 • Flight Verified 60° 50° 40° 35° 75° 70° 65° 60° 55° 50°
AC 90-92 2/5/93 Appendix 1
LORAN-C OCEANIC COVERAGE DIAGRAM Labrador Sea Chain - 7930
TRANSMITTER POWER (KW) PARAMETERS M Fox Harbour 800 Contour: SNR -10 db; GDOP 7,700 ft/us W Cape Race 1030 • Average Atmospheric Noise: 47 db
• Surface to FL 600 Angissog 760
• Flight Verified 70° 65° 60° 55° 50° 45° 40° 65° 25° 60° 55° 50° 45° 40° 35° 30°
AC 90-92 Appendix 1 2/5/93
LORAN-C OCEANIC COVERAGE DIAGRAM Icelandic Chain - 9980
ID TRANSMITTER POWER (KW) PARAMETERS M Sandur 1500 Contour: SNR -10 db; GDOP 7,700 ft/ps W Angissoa 760 • Average Atmospheric Noise: 47 db
• Surface to FL 600 Ejde 400
• Flight Verified 70° 65° 60° 55° 50° 45° W 45° 40° 35° 30° 25° 20° 15° 10° 5° 10