2/1/90 rangle Map for the area is necessary to conduct the feasibility study, the inspector will request the map from the sponsor of the event. This may be necessary at a site where the U.S. Navy "Blue Angels" or the U.S. Air Force "Thunderbirds" are appearing for the first time or at sites where new construction may affect a location's suitability for an aviation event.
42. SPECIAL WAIVER PROVISIONS. While the FAA has emphasized the need to maintain standard aviation event separation requirements at sites where it can be accomplished, the aerial demonstration teams may request and receive a special waiver of FAR §§ 91.79(b) and (c) for nonaerobatic flight at altitudes of 200 feet above the highest obstacle within a 3 nautical mile distance from the designated show center along the approved ingress/egress route to and from the aerobatic maneuvering area. The request for the special waiver by the Commanding Officer of the military team should be approved provided:
a. An on-site survey of the demonstration area has been completed by the Commanding Officer of the military demonstration team or a designated member of the team.
A meeting with the Commanding Officer or a designated member of the team, the waiver applicant or designated representative, and the appropriate representative of the FAA FSDO has been held to discuss the potential impact of the operation on the surrounding area.
FAR §§ 91.79(b) and (c), minimum safe altitudes, A letter requesting a special waiver of from the Commanding Officer or the designated member of the team is provided to the FAA FSDO. The letter should specify the altitudes and area over which the special waiver is required. The letter should also state that the Commanding Officer or the designated member of the team, as an authorized representative of the DOD, has completed an on-site survey of the Chap 3 Par 41 AC 91-45C proposed area of operation, has discussed the impact of the operation with the event waiver applicant and the appropriate FAA FSDO representative, and that the demonstration, as provided to the FAA in the command maneuvers package, can be safely conducted in the area. It should further state that the Commanding Officer will accept full responsibility for the operation.
DOD has agreed to approve official demonstration events only when safety is not derogated. Under no circumstances will flight at altitudes less than 500 feet above ground level (AGL) be conducted over designated spectator areas nor shall aviation event aerobatic maneuvers be conducted over spectator or congested areas.
e. While the guidelines in this chapter are primarily oriented to U.S. military precision flight demonstration teams, the procedures may also be applicable to foreign teams. A Letter of Authorization for lower than standard minimums for foreign military teams shall be issued by AFS-20, and only under special circumstances.
Any questions a sponsor may have involving a team should be directed to:
U.S. Army Parachute Team Operations Officer Box 70126 Ft. Bragg, NC 28307-0126
(919) 396-2036 U.S. Navy Blue Angels Events Coordinator NAS Pensacola, FL 32508
(904) 452-2585 U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds Air Show Coordinator P.O. Box 9733 Nellis AFB, NV 89191
(702) 652-9593
43.-48. RESERVED.
25 (thru 30)
CHAPTER 4. AIR RACE COURSE DESIGN
49. SPONSOR RESPONSIBILITIES. The sponsor has the responsibility to lay out the course in such a manner so as to prevent hazards to spectators and other persons on the surface.
50. PERSONNEL. Only persons and vehicles authorized by the race organization at the event should be permitted beyond the crowd line during racing operations.
Authorized persons include press, crews, and officials at the start line.
b. Authorized persons should clear the runway and move back to at least the runway "hold short" line 1 minute before launch for standing starts. No one should be permitted in front of the front row of aircraft after this time except the starter flag team.
Pylon crews (except the home pylon flag crews), press, and vehicles should remain inside the pylon course during races. Race timing teams are permitted in the area between the crowd line and the showline during racing.
51. TYPICAL RACE COURSES. A diagram of a typical air race site is shown in Appendix 1, Figure 18. A map of a typical unlimited race course (Reno, NV) is shown in Appendix 1, Figure 19. Four examples of suitable air race site diagrams are shown in Appendix 1, Figure -
20. The method of determining the various distances used are discussed in the following paragraphs.
52. RACE COURSE DESIGN. Closed-course pylon air racing is conducted over a fixed, shortdistance race course, usually located on or adjacent to an airport. The design of a satisfactory pylon air race course involves the shape of the course itself and the relationship of that course to the spectator areas. Both of these depend upon the maximum speed that may be expected from the racing aircraft and the maxium "g" loading (acceleration forces) that the race aircraft are expected to encounter when flying the race course in a normal manner. Additionally, the maximum height at which race aircraft are expected to fly during the race becomes a factor.
53. RACE COURSE SPEEDS. The following speeds are typical speeds for each racing class.
a. Formula Vee: 160 miles per hour.
b. Sport Biplane: 210 miles per hour.
c. AT-6/SNJ: 225 miles per hour.
d. International Formula One: 250 miles per hour.
e. Unlimited: 450 miles per hour.
f. When additional classes become active, they should be added to this list with appropriate speeds specified.
The maximum "g" loading for a race aircraft flying the course in a normal manner has been set at 3.5 "g's." Note that in actual racing, maneuvering turbulence encountered, momentary "g loadings in excess of this figure can be expected.
The speed and "g" loadings permit the calculation of the minimum radius turn that should be permitted in the design of the race The formula for the tur radius for a given "g" loading and speed is: (Using a value of 3.5 for "g," the minimum turn radius is shown for each racing class in Appendix 1, Figure 21.)
R =
32.2 x R Minimum turn radius Aircraft ›peed (ft/sec) Chap 4 Par 49 31
G = Max acceleration (ft/sec?)
32.2 = Acceleration of gravity (ft/sec?)
i. The angle of the turn (the change in course required to negotiate the turn) should be planned so that it will avoid forcing a race aircraft to make the tum too sharply. A maximum tum angle that does not exceed 65° has been found to be satisfactory.
(1) A maximum racing altitude of 250 feet is acceptable for aircraft weighing in excess of 1,000 pounds (presently, the AT-6/SNJ and the unlimited class), and a maximum racing altitude of 150 feet is acceptable for aircraft weighing 1,000 pounds or less (presently the Intemational Formula 1, Sport Biplane and Formula Vee Classes). The length of the scatter distance for each racing class is shown in Appendix 1,
54. RACE COURSE SHOWLINE. During the race, aircraft occupy a raceway around the race course. The edge of this raceway closest to the 2 x A spectator area is generally the showline over S = V _ X which no aircraft is permitted to pass while 32.2 Scatter distance The raceway width may vary from V = Aircraft speed (ft/sec) 150 feet to 500 feet in the various racing classes A = Aircraft altitude (AGL) to allow aircraft to pass one another. The critical 32.2 Acceleration of gravity (ft/sec?)
requirement is that no racing aircraft is permitted to pass over the showline during the race. (2) The locus of all possible debris impact points from an aircraft in a turn describes a The minimum turn radius, the maxi- circle whose radius is the square root of the sums mum turn angle, and the raceway width define of the squares of the turn radius and the scatter the limits of a satisfactory race course. The race distance. This radius is called the "scatter radius" course relationship to the spectator areas (or other (Appendix 1, Figure 21).
populated area should also be defined. Racing classes with a maximum speed of 250 miles per Sr (R' + S) hour or less require a spacing of 500 feet between the spectators and the showline. The un- Sr = Scatter radius (feet) limited racing class (or other new classes with R = Turn radius (feet) speeds in excess of 250 miles per hour) requires Scatter distance (feet) a spacing of 1,000 feet between the spectator and the showline. (3) In order to provide an acceptable margin of safety, the differences between the tur
c. An additional safety area is required to radius and the scatter radius are multiplied by a ensure that spectators are protected in the event safety factor of 1.5 and added to the turn radius that debris leaves a race aircraft. Should this to define the "safety radius" (Appendix 1, occur while the aircraft is in a turn, the debris Figure 21).
will follow a path tangential to the turn at the moment it departs the aircraft. The straight line Sfr = R + 1.5 x (Sr - R) distance that the debris will fall before hitting the ground (ignoring air resistance) will depend upon Str = Safety radius (feet) aircraft speed and arcraft altitude. This distance Sr = Scatter radius (feet) is called the "scatter distance." R = Turn radius (feet) Chap 5 32 Par 53
2/1/90
(4) The turn that is critical with respect to the safety radius is the turn that enters the portion of the race closest to the spectators.
The safety area is constructed as follows:
(i) Divide the angle for the turn in question in half.
(ii) Mark off the minimum turn radius for the class of aircraft racing as shown in Appendix 1, Figure 21, from the pylon position to a point on the angle bisector.
(111) Draw an arc whose radius is the safety radius from the point located in paragraph 54b. No spectator areas should be within this arc.
(5) In some cases, it may be expedient to design the race course around the spectator Chap 4 Par 54 AC 91-45C While spectator-to-showline distances are unchanged, the safety zone is now outside the spectator area and is no longer a factor. Roads to this kind of a race course layout must be completely closed off to the spectator area during the
(6) Race courses are normally flown in counter-clockwise direction (left Problem sites may require flying the course in a clockwise direction (right tums). Other modifications of the race course, such as changing the angular relationships of the spectator line (to move the crowd away from a tur pylon) or lengthening the race course (to move the turn pylon away from the crowd) may also be necessary.
55.-58. RESERVED.
33 (thru 38)
CHAPTER S. BALLOON MEETS AND BALLOON COMPETITIONS
59. PUBLIC SAFETY. Just as with other aviation events, the FAA has the responsibility to ensure public safety during the balloon meets or competitions.
60. BALLOON OPERATIONS. Manned free balloon flight competitions could result in operations at horizontal and vertical distances less than those required by FAR §$ 91.79(b) and (c).
The ground track of balloons is accomplished solely by varying altitude to take advantage of different wind directions and velocities.
The greatest diversity in the wind directions normally occurs in the first 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the surface.
b. Balloon pilots use these changes in wind direction and velocity to demonstrate their navigational skills during competitions by maneuvering the balloon to a predetermined point on the ground. These operations can occur at minimum altitudes less than those prescribed in FAR §§ 91.79(b) and (c) when appropriate limitations are developed to protect the public and the participants.
61. DESCRIPTION AND TERMINOLOGY.
Appendix 1, Figure 22, is a typical hot air balloon. Appendix 1, Figure 23, is terminology generally associated with balloons.
62. BALLOON MEETS. Balloon meets and races are held throughout the country. As ballooning grows, competitive tasks have been refined and standardized. Currently, the FAA's concer is to ensure applicable requirements are met and safety regulations are complied with so that neither members of the public nor ballooning participants are endangered.
a. Target areas must be under the control of the event officials. These officials must have adequate manpower to maintain crowd control.
Portable "bull horns" or public address systems are an adequate means for controlling crowd movements or for directing balloonists away from the target area in an emergency.
b. Balloon landings are not normally permitted closer than 1,500 feet from the target or goal, although in certain instances, event officials may announce a reduction of this distance to 500 feet for safety considerations. Only members of official recovery crews may be present at the landing site.
For events sanctioned by the various ballooning organizations, organizers submit a set of competition rules when they apply for a waiver. This is not a regulatory requirement but should be encouraged for the sake of conformity and safety improvement.
63. TYPES OF COMPETITIVE TASKS.
Since wind is the only force that moves a balloon laterally over the ground, competitive tasks are basically exercises in navigation according to wind direction. The winner of a particular task is the balloonist who can best take advantage of changes in wind direction, by ascending and descending, to accomplish the task. Sponsors of ballooning events are encouraged to use "launch directors" for competitive tasks to control staggered launch times and provide additional safety for multiple launches. The Balloon Federation of America (BFA) has provided information on some typical balloon competition tasks which may be conducted at balloon meets. A typical event would task the balloonist to ascend and move from one location to another and drop one or more markers as close to a goa, target, or objective as possible. The BFA has a recommended procedure which establishes minimum distances between target drop marker areas and balloon descent and landing areas. That distance is usually at least 1,500 feet. An immediate landing after an event is at yhe pilot's discretion.
Chap 5 Par 59 39
AC 91-45C Pilot Declared Goal (PDG).
event, balloonists must define their goals or targets by description and by map reference. The goals are declared in writing and given to a timekeeper. Each pilot flies from the designated launch area and attempts to drop a marker as close as possible to the declared goal. The resultant distance from the declared goal to the marker is then measured. The shortest distance wins. Descent and landing after dropping the marker should be at least 1,500 feet from the
b. Judge Declared Goal (JDG). Each pilot ascends from the designated launch area and attempts to drop a marker as close as possible to a goal set by the officials. The resultant distance from the JDG to the marker is then measured.
Again, the shortest distance wins. Descent and landing after dropping the marker should be at least 1,500 feet away from the goal.
Multiple Judge Declared Goal (MJDG).
Each pilot flies from the launch area and chooses one of a number of goals set by the officials.
The pilot attempts to drop a marker near the goal chosen. The resultant distance from the marker to the goal is measured and the shortest distance Descent and landing after dropping the marker should be at least 1,500 feet away from Elbow (ELBO). In this event, the balloon launch area is situated at the center of two concentric circles. Each balloonist ascends from the launch area and travels in any desired direc- After traveling to a pilot selected point somewhere between the inner and outer circle, a marker is dropped. The takeoff axis is hereby established as the direction from the takeoff point to the point at which the first marker is dropped.
Hereafter, each balloonist attempts to achieve a 180° change in direction from the takeoff axis.
The greatest change of flight direction with the smallest angle of divergence is best.
traveling at least 5,000 feet from the first marker (but still within the outer circle), a second marker 40 2/1/90 is dropped. The angle of divergence is then measured in degrees, relative to the takeoff axis.
Hare and Hound (HNH).
balloon, "the hare," takes off several minutes before the rest of the balloons and drops a marker at a designated point. The hare balloon deflates and is removed from the landing area.
marker dropped by the hare balloon becomes the target for the later launched balloons, "the hounds. The hounds try to drop markers as close as possible to the target placed on the ground by the hare balloon. After dropping the marker from each hound balloon, landing is at the pilot's discretion but should be more than 1,500 feet from the target.
Convergent Navigational Task (CNT).
Officials establish a goal, but balloonists find their own launch areas for the attempt to reach the goal. The boundary of the launch area declared by the pilot is the physical boundary of a field or a circle with a 300-foot radius from the inflation point, whichever is less. The offcials place a target at the goal 30 minutes before the launch period begins. Each pilot launches and attempts to navigate to the target, and drops a marker. The result is the distance from the target to the marker. The shortest distance wins. After dropping the marker from each hound balloon, descent and landing is at the pilot's discretion but should be more than 1,500 feet from the target.
Fly On Task (FOT). The pilot declares a goal to fly to after dropping a marker in another task.
Gordon Bennett Memorial (GBM). The competitors maneuver their balloons a prescribed distance from a target on the ground (scoring area. Through use of the winds, they attempt to maneuver back to the scoring area and drop markers on the target. Standard BFA landing procedures should be observed.
Watership Down. This is a two-part task. Pilots find their own launch sites and fly Chap 5 Par 63
2/1/90 to a target established by the officials.
specified time before the launch, a hare balloon takes off adjacent to the target established by the officials, then flies on and drops a marker at a designated point. This marker becomes the second target. The hare balloon deflates, and the envelope remains flattened on the ground to serve as a guide to the second target area.
competing pilot drops a marker as close as possible to the first target (the launch site of the hare balloon). Pilots then fly on to drop a second marker as close as possible to the target marker placed by the hare balloon.
j. Key Grab. One of the most popular events for both the participants and the spectators is the key grab. This event usually has a target (generally a tall pole with the keys to a new automobile affixed to the top) in a centralized The balloonist must depart from a predetermined distance from the target.
object of the event is to maneuver the balloons (one-by-one) over the target by altitude changes so the pilot can attempt to grab the keys as the balloon goes by the pole. The area around the pole must be completely clear of spectators and under the control of the event officials.
64. BALLOON COMPETITION EVENT WAIVERS. To be eligible for a waiver FAR §§ 91.79(b) and (c), the applicant must prepare and keep current an operations manual that has been approved by the FAA FSDO having jurisdiction over the proposed balloon competition.
The contents of the manual are the basis for the issuance of the waiver. The applicant and the participants must comply with the manual contents and requirements.
2. A waiver of FAR §§ 91.79(b) and (c) for organized free balloon competitions can be issued based on submission of a proper application which contains the proposed operations and contents of the Organized Manned Free Balloon Competition Manual.
Chap 5 Par 63 AC 91-45C
b. FAR § 91.79 shall be waived only to the extent necessary to accommodate the event, and then only if the waiver allows an acceptable level of safety. Evaluation of the site determines the actual separation distances to be used for a specific event; however, the following minimum and special provisions observed:
(1) FAR § 91.79(b) may be waived to allow flight over a congested area of a city, town, or settlement at an altitude of no less than 500 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of 500 feet of the balloon. This section of the regulation may only be waived within a specified maximum distance from the designated launch sites and/or target areas. This designated area must be determined by the sponsor and FAA, and must be clearly delineated in the sponsor's manual before the event. (A scaled map, drawing, and/or aerial photographs should be in the sponsor's manual before the event.)
The designated area should be the minimum area necessary to accommodate the specific events planned and should be consistent with the ability of the sponsor to control operations. In addition, if the target area is so small that a normal de scent (200 to 300 feet per minute) cannot be made to the target, then a waiver of FAR § 91.79(b) should not be issued.
(2) FAR § 91.79(b) may also be waived to allow flight over, but no less than 75 feet from, any open-air assembly of persons (desig nated spectator area) under the direct control of the sponsor who has been issued the waiver. The balloon must have attained a state of altitude equilibrium at this 75-foot minimum altitude and not be descending while crossing over the designated spectator area.
(3) FAR § 91.79(c) may be waived to allow flight over open water or sparsely populated areas no closer than 200 feet to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure.
AC 91-45C
(4) The target area around the "key grab" event must be totally clear of spectators and under the control of the event officials.
These officials must have adequate manpower to maintain crowd control. Sponsors should either have portable "bull homs" or a public address system to control the crowd movements verbally or to direct the balloonist away from the target area in the event of an emergency. It these precautions are observed, then a waiver of FAR § 91.79(c) can be issued to allow operations closer than 500 feet to the crowd. The event sponsor must establish procedures to ensure that the balloonists will abort the key grab attempt when it becomes apparent that the balloons' ground tracks will not be within the operating area or when a realistic chance for the key is no longer possible. The balloon landing areas must be segregated from the spectators. Only designated members of the recovery crews can be present to assist the balloonist with recovery.
All of these requirements must be briefed to all participants before the operations.
65. BALLOON COMPETITION MANUAL.
The Organized Manned Free Balloon Competition Manual must incorporate FAR §§ 91.79(b) and
(c) limitations, as appropriate, to the specific event in a form and manner acceptable to the FAA and the sponsor. The sponsor should reflect the manner of operations under the event waiver as clearly as possible in the manual. The operations manual shall include a list and description of all events, tasks, and races to be included in the waiver. The inspector should encourage the sponsor to place the aircraft operating procedures and other safety-related procedures in a separate section of the manual, which is subject to review and approval by the FAA.
66. BALLOON CREWMEMBERS.
crewmembers may be carried on board any balloon operating under the waiver issued to the All crewmembers must be designated by the pilot in command and have been given appropriate training in the conduct of their duties.
These designated crewmembers must sign on the 42 2/1/90 waiver form that they have been briefed, that they understand the limitations of the waiver under which they are operating, and that they are designated crewmembers for the purpose of the specific flight under the waiver. The pilot in command of each balloon using additional crewmembers is responsible for obtaining and keeping such statements.
67. MAXIMUM WINDSPEED. The maximum windspeed for launch and at the target zones is mutually determined by the sponsor and the FAA.
These limitations shall be placed in the operations The maximum windspeed limitations should be determined considering the local terrain conditions and the competency of the participating airmen. The actual means of determining the windspeed must be mutually agreeable to the FAA and the sponsor. The inspector and/or the sponsor may wish to consider moving the designated spectator area barriers if the windspeed increases.
68. DESIGNATED SPECTATOR AREA. The designated spectator area should be maintained at a minimum radius of 200 feet away from the designated or declared goal/target. This 200-foot minimum target area should remain sterile except for officially designated event personnel.
69. DURATION OF WAIVER. No operations shall be conducted under this waiver except during the period from sunrise to sunset and during Visual Flight Rules conditions as specified in FAR § 91.105.
70. LETTERS OF AGREEMENT. A letter of agreement clearly detailing all responsibilities provides an excellent means of control.
means of control has been successfully used in various cases. For example, the sponsor of the balloon meet outlines the responsibilities he or she assumes, such as crowd control, notification, communication, briefing of participating pilots, etc., in the manual. Air Traffic identifies the services they provide, such as up-to-date weather, Chap 5 Par 64
2/1/90 a portable tower, or a direct communication line with the tower.
71. CARRIAGE OF PASSENGERS FOR HIRE. Under the provisions of FAR § 135.1(b)(7), persons engaged in carrying passengers for hire using balloons are not subject to FAR Part 135.
AC 91-45C
72. MANUAL APPROVAL. The aircraft operating and other safety-related procedures contained in the balloon competition manual must be approved by the inspector assigned to evaluate The approved procedures must be incorporated into the waiver.
73.-76. RESERVED.
Chap 5 Par 70 43 (thru 46)
CHAPTER 6. PARACHUTING AND PARACHUTISTS
77. CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORIZATION.
While many of the activities associated with aviation events frequently require waivers, parachuting or skydiving demonstration jumps do not require waivers. As provided for in FAR Part 105, some of these jumps do require an FAA Form 7711-1, Certificate of Waiver or Authorization.
§ 105.15 is applicable to jumps over or into congested areas or open-air assemblies of persons.
FAR § 105.19 is applicable to jumps in or into control zones with functioning control towers.
FAA Form 7711-1 is required for any jump over or into a congested area.
The drift-over provision of FAR § 105.15 permits a jumper to exit an aircraft over something other than a congested area, and with a fully-deployed parachute, drift over a congested area or open-air assembly of persons, and land in Under these circumstances an FAA Form 7711-1 is not required.
The key to determine if an authorization is required are the words "over or into." In other words, the drift-over provision does not permit any jump that results in a landing into a congested area or open-air assembly of persons unless the parachutist has obtained an FAA Form 7711-1.
78. PARACHUTE ASSOCIATIONS/ORGANI- ZATIONS. Parachutists who are not members of a recognized parachute organization or the participating branch of a national aero club and who wish to participate in a demonstration or exhibition jump over or into a congested area must present satisfactory evidence of the necessary experience, knowledge, and skill equivalent to that required by the United States Parachute Association (USPA).
a. If the parachutist is unable to provide this information, the FAA inspector-in-charge may require a demonstration jump (not over a congested area as a prerequisite before approving the request.
b. The USPA, located at 1440 Duke Street, Alexandria, VA 22314, telephone (703) 836- 3495, has adopted its own safety rules and licensing standards for parachutists, instructors, and jumpmasters. The USPA has pledged to implement a policy of self-policing to assist the FAA in avoiding conflicts with other airspace users and to maintain a high level of safety. Toward this end, the USPA has supplied every FAA FSDO with a brochure of its rules and safety programs and have offered their assistance anytime the FAA encounters problems with a particular club or has questions regarding parachuting.
79. PARACHUTIST'S COMPETENCE. The competence of parachutists is extremely important when evaluating the suitability of a landing site.
a. Holders of USPA Class C and D licenses have proven themselves to be highly skilled. Anyone holding such a license who has actively participated in the sport within the last 12 months should be competent to participate in any jump where the separation criteria meets or exceeds that established in a Level One landing area. (See paragraph 80a.)
Persons holding a USPA Class D license with a current exhibition (Pro) rating have demonstrated the additional skills that are necessary to permit exhibition demonstrations in accordance with the separation criteria established in a Level Two landing area. (See paragraph 80b.)
USPA exhibition ratings are issued to members who have a Class D license and who have accomplished 10 successive jumps into a 10-meter (32-foot) diameter target area in accordance with the following criteria:
Chap 6 Par 77 47
AC 91-45C
(1) All landings must be made standing up.
(2) The size of the canopy used during the exhibition certification determines the canopy limitation allowed in actual demonstration jumps
(i.e., smallest canopy demonstrated).
(3) Demonstration jumps must be witnessed by either a safety and training advisor (SATO) or by an instructor/examiner (I/E), and at least two other spectators.
(4) USPA issues the added exhibition rating with an expiration date 12 months from the certification date. Members are renewed on the basis of continued demonstration of the original certification requirements.
80. LANDING AREAS. USPA divides landing areas into two distinct categories, depending on the demonstrated competency of the parachutists.
a. Level One. Parachutists who hold a USPA Class C or D license must select a landing 48 (thru 52) 2/1/90 area that permits the jumper to land no closer than 50 feet from any spectator and does not involve passing over persons on the surface at an altitude of less than 250 feet.
b. Level Two. Parachutists who hold a USPA Class D license with an exhibition (Pro) rating and who certify that they shall use a steerable square main and reserve canopy, shall be permitted to exit over or into a congested area. The selected landing area must permit the jumper to land no closer than 15 feet from any spectator and does not involve passing over persons on the surface at an altitude of less than
81. ALTERNATE LANDING AREAS.
gardless of the experience of the parachutists, "runoffs" or "escape areas" should be considered.
Small target areas may be acceptable when a suitable altemate landing area is available in the event of unexpected conditions.
82.-86. RESERVED.
Chap 6 Par 79
Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1. FIGURES