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11. WATER SURVIVAL. Successful egress from an inverted seaplane into the water is only the beginning of the survival process. The pilot may be the only person who understands the effects of cold water, even water only a few degrees cooler than normal body temperature, on the human body. Seaplane accidents that occur even on small bodies of water may mean a wait for rescue, especially if the location is remote.
Furthermore, even if the evacuees make it to shore fairly quickly after submersion, they may still be at risk for hypothermia if the outside temperatures are cold and the evacuees do not have access to dry clothing or shelter. Especially for seaplanes operating into remote areas, operators should consider stocking the seaplane with survival gear appropriate for the operation. The survival kit should be assembled in one container that is leak proof, easily accessible, and floatable. Some Alaskan and Canadian operators attach a rope and a float to the survival kit to allow for easier recovery once everyone has exited the aircraft. This has proved quite successful in emergency situations in some of North America’s harshest terrain. Pilots are advised that some states and other countries require survival equipment appropriate for the geographical area, the season of the year, and anticipated seasonal climatic variations.
Pilots should familiarize themselves and comply with these requirements before flight. Seaplane operators should include provisions for shelter, water, fire, and signaling when considering what equipment to include in a survival kit. They should also emphasize the need for passengers to wear appropriate survival gear, e.g., good shoes and clothing. Also, if the weather is cool enough to wear a coat, it should be a coat that will still maintain insulating properties after being submerged. Also, anything you wear on board the seaplane should not be bulky enough to hinder escape through an aircraft window. Section 91.509 specifies the operations for survival equipment for overwater operations for large and turbine-powered multiengine airplanes.
a. Hypothermia. Cold water (less than 70 °F) lowers body temperature rapidly, creating a condition called hypothermia. Hypothermia means that the body’s inner core temperature has begun to descend significantly below the body’s norm of 98.6 °F. A drop of only 3° or 4° in body temperature could overload the heart, impair circulation, and lead to irreversible brain damage. (Hypothermic persons still in the water generally lose consciousness and drown before these effects can occur.)
(1) Even though a person may be wearing a life jacket-type PFD, the body cools down about 25 times faster in cold water than in cold air. Water temperature, body size, amount of body fat, and movement in the water are all factors that play a part in how quickly a person becomes hypothermic and, therefore, in that person’s survival. Generally, small people cool down faster than larger people;
children cool down faster than adults.
(2) Flotation gear can help a person stay alive longer in cold water because it allows the person to float wit hout expenditure of energy; i.e., the person’s movement in the water can be used exclusively for moving toward shore rather than trying to stay afloat. Flotation gear also protects the upper torso somewhat from the
Par 11 Page 11 effects of cold water. For example, a snug-fitting life vest would be more effective in keeping the upper torso warm than a loose-fitting one or a seat cushion used as flotation gear.
(3) Because any activity not necessary for survival will quicken the body's heat loss, before takeoff pilots should instruct their passengers that in the event of an accident, they should assume the “Heat Escape Lessening Position” while awaiting rescue. This position may be used in the water or land and reportedly will reduce the body’s heat loss by 50 percent. The position is assumed by holding your arms tightly to the sides of the chest, crossing the forearms over the chest, and drawing up the legs and crossing them at the ankles. This position closes off most major heat loss areas. If there are several people involved, huddling close, side to side in a circle, will also help preserve body heat.
b. Effects of Hypothermia. The exact nature of the hypothermic process is not yet fully understood. The following table provides some indication of onset of unconsciousness and the expected time of survival in water of specific temperatures.* Water Temperature in o Fahrenheit Exhaustion orUnconsciousness Expected Time ofSurvival Up to 32.5° Under 15 minutes 15 to 45 minutes
32.5° to 40° 15 to 30 minutes 30 to 90 minutes 40° to 50° 30 to 60 minutes 1 to 3 hours 50° to 60° 1 to 2 hours 1 to 6 hours 60° to 70° 2 to 7 hours 2 to 40 hours 70° to 80° 2 to 12 hours 3 hours to indefinitely Over 80° Deferred indefinitely Indefinitely *Information from Underwriters Laboratory, Inc.
c. Handling Victims of Hypothermia. A hypothermic person requires special attention, and rescue personnel (this could be the operator’s personnel who have no medical training) should be aware of the following guidelines on how to handle victims of hypothermia.
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(1) Lack of movement does not mean dead. Rescue personnel should make no assumptions based only on the victim’s appearance, touch, or absence of a discernible pulse or breathing. In deep hypothermia, it is not always possible to make an onsite determination whether a person is still alive. Some medical experts believe that deep hypothermia places the body in a state similar to hibernation, where brain and other organ functions become depressed, therefore requiring less oxygen from a reduced blood flow. Some victims have been revived, but the extent of injury or damage from the hypothermia has varied.
(2) Rescuers should not warm the victim externally, such as by immersion in warm water or by applying heat directly to the body. Rescuers should cover exposed skin with a blanket and provide shelter but should avoid abrupt temperature changes in the victim’s immediate environment. The rescuers should arrange for transport to a medical facility as soon as possible.
12. FLOTATION GEAR FOR SEAPLANES. As stated above, one of the purposes of this AC is to suggest that seaplane operators who are not engaged in for-hire operations provide flotation gear for occupants any time a seaplane operates on or near water. The following paragraphs will discuss the various requirements of the FAA and the USCG for the types of flotation gear. Operators must bear in mind that seaplane operations pose unique ingress/egress situations in which a noninflatable, USCG-approved PFD, because of its bulkiness, could restrict or impair exiting the seaplane. For this reason, the FAA recommends the use of FAA or USCG-approved, inflatable PFD in not-for-hire operations. For-hire operators must use FAA-approved PFD.
a. USCG Requirements . Title 33 CFR part 175, section 175.15 (USCG regulation), requires a PFD for each occupant on all vessels, but this does not include seaplanes. A seaplane is exempt from the USCG safety equipment requirements, including the requirements for USCG-approved PFD's. Requiring seaplanes on the water to comply with USCG equipment requirements in addition to the FAA equipment requirements would be an unnecessary burden on seaplane owners and operators. However, many states have statutes requiring PFD's to be carried on board vessels operating on any inland body of water for which the USCG has no jurisdiction. Navigable bodies of water may come under Federal, State, or local jurisdiction or, in a few cases, may be privately owned.
b. FAA Requirements . Section 91.205(b)(12) requires approved flotation gear for aircraft operated for-hire over water and beyond power-off gliding distance from shore. FAA approves life preservers under Technical Standard Order (TSO) C13f and individual flotation devices under TSO C726. In addition, section 91.509 specifies the requirements for survival equipment for overwater operations for large and turbine-powered multiengine airplanes.
(1) At one time, FAA-approved gear differed substantially from that required for navigable waterways under USCG rules. FAA-approved life preservers
Par 12 Page 13 are inflatable designs as compared to the USCG’s inherently buoyant PFD's that may consist of solid, bulky material. Such USCG PFD's are impractical for seaplanes and other aircraft because they may block passage through the relatively narrow exits available to pilots and passengers. In 1995, the USCG adopted structural and performance standards for inflatable PFD's used on recreational boats. These PFD's are intended for general boating activities by adults and on inland waters, or where there is a good chance of a fast rescue. However, USCG-approved inflatable PFD's are not for use by children younger than 16 years of age or by persons weighing less than 80 pounds, not recommended for nonswimmers or weak swimmers (unless worn inflated), and not for water sports like skiing or for personal water craft use.
Therefore, the FAA recommends that seaplane operators who are not engaged in forhire operations use the FAA’s TSO life preservers or individual PFD's.
(2) Life preservers approved under TSO C13f contain fully inflatable compartments. The wearer inflates the compartments primarily by independent CO 2 cartridges with an oral inflation tube as a backup. This flotation gear also contains a water-activated, self-illuminating signal light. The fact that pilots and passengers can easily don and wear inflatable life preservers (when not inflated) provides maximum effectiveness and features an uncluttered exterior surface that protects the working components and allows for unrestricted movement.
c. Buoyancy. The buoyancy in a flotation device must be distributed so that if the wearer is unconscious or disoriented in the water, the device will “self-right” the wearer; i.e., if the wearer is face down in the water, the distribution of the buoyant material in the device will “turn” the wearer f ace up. This is another important reason why pilots should demonstrate or supervise the proper donning of the device so that wearers will not put the device on improperly and defeat this self-righting ability. The TSO C13f life preservers have excellent self-righting capabilities.
d. Flotation Gear Maintenance. Lifesaving equipment must be maintained in serviceable c ondition in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Any FAA-approved flotation gear used in operations for compensation or hire must be inspected at least every 12 months by persons authorized by 14 CFR part 43. This inspection would be included in the annual or 100-hour inspection for the aircraft or under any other inspection program that the operator is authorized to use.
e. Wearing of Flotation Gear During all Phases of Flight. W h e n a standard marine life jacket or FAA-approved life preserver stored in a pouch is tucked unrestrained under a seat, it could be thrown or tossed from the seaplane with other debris in the event of an accident or capsizing. In this case, the flotation gear becomes ineffective for swimmer and nonswimmer alike. Furthermore, life jackets in sealed pouches can be awkward to remove and don in a flooded aircraft. When a survivor attempts to put on a jacket in the water, it may be difficult to find and fasten its straps and hooks. It would take considerable effort to accomplish the combined
Par 12Page 14 maneuver of pulling a life jacket over one’s head while in the water trying to stay afloat. If a life preserver is not worn before flight, it is practically impossible for a survivor with an injured arm, for example, to don the life preserver in time for it to be effective for survival. Wearing an uninflated TSO C13f life preserver at all times in the seaplane and inflating it only after exiting the seaplane would seem to be the best protection.
f. Types of PFD's. There are various types of inherently buoyant and inflatable, USCG-approved PFD's categorized by type and intended use. The USCG has indicated the advantages and disadvantages of each. To obtain information, go to the following URL: http://www.uscg.m il/hq/g%2dm/mse4/pfd.htm. If you do not have Internet access, contact your local FAA FSDO, which can print the information out for you, or contact the USCG Auxiliary.
g. The USCG regulations allow for the approval of PFD's that inflate automatically when the inflation mechanism contacts water. Please keep the following in mind regarding USCG-approved inflatable PFD's:
(1) Type I and Type II inflatable PFD's have a higher minimum buoyancy than a Type III PFD. They will out perform a Type III PFD that does not exceed the USCG minimum requirements.
(2) Some automatics will allow the user to disarm the automatic portion of the inflation mechanism.
(3) If the user improperly disarms the automatic portion of the inflatable PFD, he/she might also disarm the manual portion.
(4) Wearing a PFD with the automatic portion armed would most certainly put passengers at risk of being trapped in the airplane or damaging the PFD, rendering it unusable.
(5) If the device is to be used in both a seaplane and a boat, then the device must be rearmed for boating.
h. Other Water Survival Equipment. Dive shops and marine equipment retailers offer many types of supplemental water survival equipment. Among these are buoyancy compensatory belts and small, compact alternate air source containers used by scuba divers as a backup to their regular air tanks. These containers were originally developed for military helicopter crews, can hold up to 4 minutes of air, and are relatively lightweight and easy to stow. Four minutes of breathable air could provide pilots and passengers with some extra time to don lifejackets and exit an overturned seaplane that has flooded. Although these alternate air source containers may meet or exceed USCG requirements, they are not FAA-approved.
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13. SUMMARY. The best time to know emergency procedures and the worst time to learn them is during an actual emergency. Inherently buoyant USCG-approved PFD's are usually impractical for most seaplanes and other aircraft because they may prevent people from exiting through doors or windows. The best protection is afforded when wearing inflatable life preservers. When wearing inflatable life preservers, pilots and passengers should always wait until clear of the seaplane before inflating. Finally, the best safety devices are useless without the proper preflight briefings and safety demonstrations.
Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1. SAMPLE PASSENGER PREFLIGHT
BRIEFING CHECKLIST NOTE: This “checklist” is a guideline for pilots to use in conducting an oral preflight briefing of passengers. This list should not be used as a substitute for the briefing itself.
1. Smoking considerations: Where, when, and under what conditions.
2. Seatbelts/Shoulder harnesses: How to fasten, tighten, and unfasten; how to stow the loose end of the belt.
3. Seats: Operation forward and rearward; seat backs upright for takeoff and landing.
4. Exits: Location and operation (by demonstration) of each normal and, if applicable, emergency exit.
5. Carry-on items: Stowed properly and left on board during evacuation.
6. Situational awareness: Establish a frame of reference for left and right in relation to the aircraft exits; remind left and right are the same whether right side up or upside down. Bubbles always travel up.
7. Flotation gear:
• Cushions: Type, location, use, and demonstration of use.
• PFD's: Type, location, use, donning, and simulated demonstration of inflation.
8. Fire extinguishers: Location and how to operate.
9. Survival equipment: Location and how to retrieve.
10. ELT or Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon: Location and how to turn on.
11. Pyrotechnic signaling device: Location and how to use.
12. Brace position: Demonstration.
13. Heat Escape Lessening Position: Demonstration.
Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1. SAMPLE PASSENGER PREFLIGHT BRIEFING CHECKLIST (Continued)
14. Propeller cautions: No assistance in docking/launching by passengers unless requested by pilot; if passenger assistance is required, specific instructions on duties, placement, and caution about propellers.
15. Passengers needing assistance: Briefed individually on all above topics including who will be assisting the passenger to exit; if passenger is accompanied by an attendant, brief both.
Be Safe - Wear Your PFD Most drownings occur way out at sea, right? Wrong! Fact is, the USCG reports that 9 out of 10 drownings occur in inland waters, most within a few feet of safety. Most of the victims owned PFD's, but they died without them. A wearable PFD can save your life - if you wear it.
If you or your passengers haven’t been wearing your PFD because of the way it makes you look or feel, there’s good news. Today’s PFD's fit better, look better, and allow easy movement. A brightly colored PFD can increase your chances of rescue.
One more thing: Before you take off, make sure all on board are wearing PFD's. To work best, a PFD must be worn with all straps, zippers, and ties fastened. Tuck in any loose strap ends to avoid getting hung up.
When you don’t wear your PFD, the odds are against you. You’re taking a chance on your life.
Appendix 2 Page 1 (and 2) APPENDIX 2. INDEX Page Background
For-hire operations2
Definitions1
Escape/Egress8
Evacuation9
Expected Time of Survival Table11
Flotation Gear12
Buoyancy13
Comprehensive preflight briefing9
FAA requirements12
Maintenance13
Other water survival equipment14
TSO C13f description13
USCG requirements12
Wearing of13
Heat Escape Lessening Position11
Hypothermia10
and flotation devices10
Effects11
Handling victims of ......................................................................................................... 1 1 Passenger Briefings
Considerations6
Passengers needing assistance7
PIC responsibilities5
Prelanding briefing7
Presentation5
Pretakeoff briefing, contents5
Propeller cautions8
Purpose of AC1
Related CFR Sections1
Related Reading Material1
Seaplane Preflight
Difference3
Inspecting floats and hulls3
Pumping out float compartments4
Riding low in the water3
Storage in float compartments4
Carrying external cargo4
Situational Awareness6
Status of Seaplanes as Vessels2
Summary15
Survival Kit10
Use of Seatbelts and Shoulder Harnesses8
Water Survival10