Page 76 Par 7-3 FIGURE 5. WEST ATLANTIC ROUTE SYSTEM PLUS OCEANIC AIRSPACE
CHAPTER 8. SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
8-1. INTRODUCTION. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards and phraseology are the official agreed-upon standards used by all countries on international flights.
With that in mind, the South America region consists of those states in the South American continent. This regional guide follows the ICAO standards and phraseology.
8-2. NAVIGATION. Operators use Class I navigation (very high frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional Range (VOR)/automatic direction finder (ADF)) procedures on some of the South American routes. A few routes operate outside the 200 mile range of standard airways radio navigation facilities. They require the use of Class II (global positioning system (GPS)/inertial reference systems (IRS)) navigation procedures. Between JFK, MIA, and South American destinations, the flight plan should specify Class II route segments for Area Navigation (RNAV)-equipped aircraft. The flight plan should identify that portion of the route where you need to accomplish Class II procedures. You should also provide a West Atlantic/Caribbean plotting chart. This would normally be on routes from JFK to South America or the Caribbean. (Minimum required equipment for operation in Class II airspace is in Chapter 10.) En route Navigational Aid (NAVAID) outages, however, have the potential for turning almost any long-range international flight into one requiring Class II navigation procedures. The FAA considers all long-range flights (those with stage lengths longer than 1,000 nautical miles (NM) outside the United States) Class II operations. As a result, all flights exceeding 1,000 NM outside North America should receive basic Class II navigation checks.
These navigation checks would include the following:
• Magnetic compass deviation check.
• Air data inertial reference unit (ADIRU)/flight management computer (FMC) gross error check.
• Navigation source validation.
• High frequency (HF) radio check.
NOTE: NAVAIDs in the Caribbean and South America, both VORs and non-directional radio beacons (NDB), may not operate continuously. An asterisk (*) preceding the frequency indicates this. Operators may turn them off when they do not expect traffic. Thus, if a NAVAID appears to be off the air, operators may make a request to the controller to reinstate operation.
NDBs shown on the en route chart with an underlined alpha identifier
(e.g., ABC) requires adding a B (for beat frequency oscillator (BFO)) to the frequency (e.g., 321B) for proper tuning on the NAV/RAD page.
8-3. COMMUNICATIONS. Operators use standard ICAO terminology throughout the Caribbean and South America regions. In both regions, they monitor an air-to-air frequency of
123.45 on very high frequency (VHF), while 121.5 is monitored on the other VHF when not in VHF contact. Flights in this area can often exchange route information ahead. Flights should do this even though air traffic control (ATC) has approved an altitude change. Altitude changes are the most dangerous maneuvers in South America. Listen closely to other aircraft position reports.
Acknowledge the pilot making those reports. Several close calls have occurred with flights Par 8-1 Page 77
scheduled to be at the same fix at the same time and altitude. You must help provide your own traffic separation on these routes.
a. Communication with Dispatcher. Maintaining a flight watch or operational control capability with dispatch is mandatory. In addition to re-dispatch messages, the dispatcher must be able to contact you at any time for weather or security issues. If Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) is operative on either VHF or satellite communication (SATCOM) Voice, it will fulfill this requirement. However, to ensure coverage, the FAA strongly recommends the flight establish and maintain contact with a high frequency (HF) Long Distance Operational Control (LDOC) facility. Remember that the HF center frequencies used in South America are not general purpose (GP) facilities and the flight cannot use them for company communication. The facilities used throughout South America are New York Aeronautical Radio, Inc. (ARINC), Houston Radio, Lima Flight Support, and the very powerful Cedar Rapids Radio. Cedar Rapids Radio should be the primary LDOC facility in South America and the Caribbean. In South America, Lima Flight Support is secondary and in the Caribbean, New York ARINC is secondary.
b. HF LDOC Frequencies and Reception. Cedar Rapids Radio (6637, 8933, 10075, 13348) has enough power to have an LDOC link all the way into deep South America. Try to raise them first for HF and Selective Call (SELCAL) check. If that fails, call ARINC on VHF
129.35 for working HF frequency. If that fails, time WWV on 5000, 10000 or 15000 and listen for time signal to confirm HF reception. Work on SELCAL check after airborne. Both HFs should be operational for dispatch (14 CFR part 91, § 91.511). Same HF frequencies coming out of EZE (try all 4 before giving up).
c. Company Flight Watch Communication. When contacting the LDOC GP operator to establish company flight watch communications, ask for primary and secondary frequencies and also obtain a SELCAL check. We assume that the flight will be monitoring the primary facility via SELCAL. If you must use a secondary facility, ask the GP operator to send a message to company to indicate the monitored facility (e.g., “Please relay to company that we will be monitoring Lima Flight Support.”).
d. Communicating Between Florida and San Juan. In the Caribbean, between Florida and San Juan, normal VHF ARINC communications are available on 130.7. An automatic dial-up feature is available on 130.7 in certain remote areas by keying the mike three times in 5 seconds. The ARINC operator should respond on the frequency.
e. Position Reports. Most airline dispatch offices would like to have position reports for flights to and from South America every 2 hours following departure from the U.S. or the South American departure station. These informal reports should include time over your chosen fix, altitude, fuel and weather conditions. You may use the MFD (multifunction display) “POSITION REPORT” or “MESSAGE TO COMPANY” format. Both reports go directly to the dispatcher. If SATCOM Voice ACARS is unavailable, use HF LDOC. In-flight blind broadcasts on frequency
123.45 are still in use in parts of South America.
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f. Language.
(1) Communications with ATC. Controllers and radio operators speak English in the Caribbean and South America, and the equipment they use may have excessive static. Those who deliver airway clearances and taxi clearances seem to be the most difficult to understand. Use the following suggestions to avoid problems:
• Use standard phraseology and speak slowly and clearly. Politeness and patience are imperative.
• Make a special effort to have all crewmembers listen to ATC when able.
• Review en route charts and put names to the abbreviated identifiers on the Flight Plan Forecast to be able to recognize them in a verbal clearance.
• Reading back the phonetic alphabet for NAVAID identifiers, however, is often better than trying to pronounce the NAVAID name.
• Do not rely on ATC to correct clearance read-back errors. Continue to query the controller when in doubt.
(2) Requesting and Receiving Clearances. A radio call to station operations with a request to call the tower and clarify an airways clearance is an option. After reviewing the routing, with the Standard Instrument Departures (SID) and runway in use, write down the anticipated clearance before calling delivery. Then check off the items as the controller reads them. The sequence may be different than what you expect. Ask the controller to repeat any misunderstood items.
FIGURE 6. IN-FLIGHT BROADCAST PROCEDURES OVER INTERTROPICAL
CONVERENCE ZONE 19
INTER-TROPICAL
CONVERGENCE ZONE
INTER-TROPICAL
CONVERGENCE ZONE UL304UL304INFLIGHT BROADCASTPROCEDURESINFLIGHT BROADCASTPROCEDURES 19
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g. ATC. There are significant differences in ATC facilities, procedures, and controller capability between countries. Controllers in the Caribbean and South America assume that pilots are masters of their fate and know what to do. Keep in mind that the clearance you ask for is the one you will receive. It is almost always prudent to stay on your route of flight, rather than asking for a reroute or direct. Also, never accept a clearance that you cannot complete
(e.g., “request 250 knots to the outer marker”). Let them know what you will accept, and almost always, they will grant you a clearance.
(1) Caribbean Flight Information Regions (FIR). In the Caribbean, you will cross multiple FIRs within a relatively short distance and you must use the associated FIR procedures for crossing. As a technique, locate all the communications boxes on the Jeppesen, LIDO, or Department of Transportation (DOT) charts, which give FIR guidance. They may not be anywhere near your route of flight. Jeppesen has recently begun using heavier marking around the sector frequency boxes, using a small telephone symbol as the line.
(2) Position Reports. To reduce the possibility of a communication error, remember that the controllers use a very precise order in receiving your position report. You must report your position in the proper format:
• Call sign.
• Position.
• Time.
• Altitude.
• Estimate for next fix.
• Name of succeeding fix.
(3) Controller Response. The controller’s most common response to your report is, “Aircraft 985, roger report ISANI.” Listen closely since the controllers may have you omit a report over intervening fixes. Some controllers and other foreign carriers may insert the word “position” before the name of a fix (e.g., “Aircraft 985, roger, report position ISANI” or “Aircraft 985, say estimate position TESAL.”).
(4) Phrasing Responses. Avoid taking shortcuts in communications or the inclusion of non-essential phrases or American colloquialisms (e.g., “Aircraft 984 getting moderate chop at three five oh and we’d like to go up to three nine oh”). The controller will probably respond to this request with silence or, even worse, a clearance for something totally unrelated to your request. Keep it simple: “Aircraft 984 requesting flight level three niner zero.” Expect a response such as “Aircraft 984, standby for FL 390.” Be careful not to interpret that as a clearance to climb to flight level (FL) 390. It is quite common for the controller to respond to your first request for an altitude change with “Standby FL 390.” They may have to check down line, maybe by antiquated teletype, to see if they can grant your request. Read back all clearances and report leaving any assigned altitude.
(5) Communication Difficulties. In South America, when out of reach of VHF, it may be possible to contact other aircraft on 123.45 and ask if they are talking to anyone on VHF. You can try that frequency, or ask them to relay a request or position report for you. Please volunteer to do the same for others having communication difficulty. It is also wise to get the flight Page 80 Par 8-3
numbers of the flight passing in the opposite direction to you. All flights that pass over each other between north and mid South America are great resources for weather and flight conditions along your route of flight.
(6) VHF and HF Communications. Most ATC communications is on VHF. From Los Angeles to San Salvador, expect VHF communications throughout the flight with radar coverage for most of Mexico. However, areas where VHF communication with ATC is not available require HF radios. There is a small area of central Brazil that may require the use of HF to contact Belem or Manaus centers. Do not give up on VHF too soon; the controllers may take 30 to 60 seconds to answer as they may be handling another flight on a different frequency. If the use of HF is necessary, a center that is nowhere near your location may answer. After making several calls to either Belem or Manaus, Maiquetia may take your call. They will be able to relay your position report to the proper center. Cedar Rapids Radio has very good reception throughout Central and South America.
h. ACARS. There are two VHFs in use in the Caribbean: 131.55 (ARINC/ACARS) and
131.72 (Societe International de Télécommunications Aeronautiques (SITA)/Air/ground Communications (AIRCOM)). In South America, operators use 131.55. In addition, ACARS will use SATCOM Voice if you cannot find an active VHF frequency. With these choices, ACARS can downlink messages to the company without any problem. Problems may arise, however, when dispatch tries to uplink messages to the aircraft via one of the three VHF networks.
Messages may be lost as the aircraft transitions from one VHF network to another with the message then returned to the originator as “unable to deliver.”
(1) HF LDOC Link. Until SATCOM Voice is proven reliable in South America, it is imperative to establish an HF LDOC link with the company to maintain the required operational control and ensure timely receipt of important messages. In the Caribbean, there is good ACARS coverage throughout.
(2) ACARS Gap and Approaching Top of Descent (TOD). An ACARS gap crops up occasionally about 200 to 400 miles north of Buenos Aires (EZE). Neither VHF nor SATCOM Voice will work and it is a good reason to keep confirming an LDOC link with Cedar Rapids Radio. Downlink any messages to the station prior to reaching this area. As the TOD approaches, ACARS should return. If all else fails, a call to station operations will work at TOD.
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Page 82 Par 8-3 FIGURE 7. AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATIONS ADDRESSING AND REPORTING
SYSTEM GAP 16 UL304UL304
COMMUNICATIONS GAP
COMMUNICATIONS GAP
CLASS II FOR
INS AIRCRAFT
CLASS II FOR
INS AIRCRAFT 16
8-4. COLLISION AVOIDANCE. Do not assume ATC is providing aircraft separation. Listen to the ATC position reports of other aircraft. Monitor the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) display on the navigation display (ND) and listen to the blind broadcast frequency. When possible, pull up the “HOWGOZIT” for other company flights and compare estimates at common fixes. Turn on a landing light when changing altitudes or when passing opposite direction traffic. Keep the lights in the cockpit at a level that does not impair distant vision. The most important glass component in any aircraft is the windshield. If an effort to avoid collision requires immediate action, respond to the TCAS RA. Consider setting one transponder TCAS to “ABV” and one to “BLW” for greatest traffic coverage. Finally, never accept a wrong way altitude. (Normal levels are 290, 330: 370, 410 southbound, 310, 350, 390, 430 northbound but some exceptions occur at eastbound/westbound magnetic course changeovers indicated with < E.)
8-5. DISPATCH. When comparing South American operations to other international remote areas, the following factors must enter into your planning:
• Weather reporting and forecasting are not as accurate as other parts of the world.
• Weather forecasts for en route airports may be 5 to 6 hours old.
• Alternate airports are unfamiliar to flightcrews as well as the language spoken.
• Weather deviations, to some extent, occur on nearly every flight.
• Cruise altitudes are limited as the result of ATC separation based on time/position reports rather than radar, and rerouting is difficult due to the limited airway structure in South America.
• If ATC assigned your planned flight altitude to a preceding flight, it may be unavailable and you may have to settle for a cruise altitude much lower than the Flight Plan Forecast.
a. Fuel Planning. The biggest factor affecting fuel planning will be the inability to secure your optimum cruise altitude, with the volume of flights conducted by all the carriers to South America. Make sure to carry enough fuel to compensate for a low cruise altitude assignment.
Consider asking for your step climb (higher filed) altitude prior to departure. Even though it might not be fuel efficient, this will ensure having a good altitude later in the flight.
b. Flight Plan. The international flight plan format is used for all flights from the continental United States to destinations in the Caribbean and South America. Like operations in the North Atlantic (NAT), maintain a master flight plan with a record of time and fuel scores regardless of whether any portion of the flight plan contains Class II navigation segments. In this area of operations, the situational awareness (SA) of position, fuel, time and developing trends has great importance. When flight planning for departure from Caribbean or South American stations, use an ICAO format flight plan. Ensure that the routing, FIR estimated time of arrivals (ETA), and altitude on this form are identical to the Flight Plan Forecast.
8-6. MAINTENANCE/DISPATCH CRITERIA.
a. Dispatch-Sensitive Systems. South American bound aircraft serviceability has proven that the following systems are dispatch-sensitive:
• Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
• TCAS.
• Weather radar (WX).
• SATCOM Voice.
• Auxiliary power unit (APU).
• Generators.
• Engine pneumatics.
• Engine anti-ice.
• Air conditioning packs and valves.
b. Serviceable Systems. Serviceability of these minimum equipment list (MEL) deferrable systems prior to dispatch should be a line maintenance priority.
8-7. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES AND DIVERSIONS. ICAO emergency procedures apply throughout the Caribbean and South America, but crews should not rely solely on ATC for navigation or terrain avoidance. This is the case especially in South America. While no different than international operations in other parts of the world, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) makes the following recommendations:
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• Become familiar with the location of alternate and emergency airports as depicted in brown on the SA/LA HI ENROUTE 1/2 chart or summarized in the airport location chart in a Flight Operations Manual (FOM).
• Be mindful of those circumstances which constitute an emergency or in-flight crisis:
engine failure, depressurization, cabin or cargo fire, a single electrical or hydraulic system remaining, medical problems, sabotage threats, or passenger misconduct. Each of these may require a slightly different crew response and alternate airport requirement.
• Maintain an emergency diversion plan at all times and communicate this plan to crewmembers preceding and following rest periods. Know the proximity of potential diversion airports and discuss their suitability for the previously mentioned problems.
Update weather and Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) via ACARS.
• Maintain a communication capability with company, dispatch, and ATC using SATCOM Voice as your primary choice in remote areas. When operating beyond VHF ACARS range, have a frequency for an LDOC link with San Francisco ARINC standing by in the event of an engine indicating and crew alerting system (EICAS) SATCOM Voice Lost message.
• Maintain an awareness of national boundaries not only for diversions but also for urgent weather deviations. With an emergency, an unscheduled FIR crossing may be unavoidable if it is the safest course of action. Be ready to communicate with the adjacent ATC facilities.
a. Diversion Planning. Some emergency and irregular procedures direct the captain to land at the nearest suitable airport. We consider this the diversion alternative, which, in the captain’s best judgment and considering all applicable factors, will result in the highest level of safety. Diversions differ in complexity and an unexpected diversion to an emergency airport in a foreign country resulting from an aircraft system malfunction can develop into an extended delay. This will require a high degree of coordination in order to safeguard the passengers and crew, carry the passengers to their destination and restore the aircraft to service. Operators can achieve optimized diversion planning and maximum assistance from Air Traffic Service (ATS) and airport emergency services.
b. Diversion Criteria. If a diversion becomes necessary for any reason, the best airport may be several hundred miles away. The following criteria should play a part in your decision:
• Airport that is nearest.
• Airport with the best weather.
• Airport with the best NAVAIDs or approach.
• Airport with the biggest city or best facilities.
c. Emergency Airports. Looking ahead and validating options for emergency landings will keep you prepared. Maintain a diversion plan at all times when operating in the Page 84 Par 8-7
Par 8-7 Page 85 Caribbean/South American (CAR/SAM) region. The Latin America/South America High Chart displays approved airports for most aircraft.
8-8. MEDICAL DIVERSION. When a medical emergency arises during flight in the Caribbean or South America, contact company dispatch or flight following as soon as possible.
Discussing a passenger’s illness with a physician on the ground or soliciting the aid of an onboard medical professional is essential before any diversion is undertaken. If a diversion to deal with a sick passenger is unavoidable, make a choice between the nearest airport and the airport with the best medical facilities. A diversion with a medical emergency is seldom easy and you must remember that all should not be put at risk for the sake of one. Any international flight anywhere in the world requires customs intervention when that flight does not land at its intended destination. Normally, if the ill passenger deplanes, the flight requires all remaining passengers to stay onboard. Family members accompanying the ill passenger are usually the exception. When an aircraft diverts for a medical emergency, or any other reason, with the intention of continuing flight to the original destination afterward, factor the following operational issues into the decision-making process:
• Fuel jettison, then refueling.
• Overweight landing, then overweight inspection.
• Brake cooling period.
• Quick turn-around time.
• Extended Operations (ETOPS) inspection.
• Dispatch release and new Flight Plan Forecast.
• Maintenance release.
• ATC clearance.
FIGURE 8. TERRAIN CRITICAL AREAS 21 UL304UL304TERRAIN CRITICAL AREAS
TERRAIN CRITICAL AREAS 21
8-9. DEPRESSURIZATION PROCEDURES. Some routes in South America have areas of high terrain that require specific emergency descent procedures where the minimum en route altitude (MEA) or Grid Minimum Off-Route Altitude (MORA) is above 10,000 feet. These “escape routes” should be part of the operations papers and followed in the event of a depressurization. Having all available information is imperative for proper planning and execution of the procedures. The last place that you want to look for the proper chart and altitudes is at night, in the descent, in the dark, not being able to communicate well with your fellow pilot, and looking through your mask to see the legend. Remember, some of the mountains in South America are above 23,000 feet.
NOTE: There are also differences in the charts that you use. On some South American/Latin American High En Route Charts, they give some Grid MORAs and some MEAs, but not all the jet routes have MEAs. On the Jeppesen High/Low charts, there are the MEAs, but they do not depict Grid MORAs well.
8-10. SAFETY OF FLIGHT. Those problematic external factors which we confront on every South American flight include communication, navigation facilities, terrain, weather, traffic, and the physiological impact of night operations. To handle these challenges with the utmost professionalism, a flightcrew must guard against complacency, poor SA, vigilance, and preparation when flying departure and arrival procedures.
a. Position and Minimum Altitudes. When operating along the airways in South America, there is reasonable assurance of position and minimum altitudes. The time to focus on Page 86 Par 8-8
position and terrain clearance is during radar vectoring in night visual meteorological conditions (VMC) or instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) operations apart from established airways. Use every available resource at your disposal: Low Altitude charts, 10-1 chart, approach pages, FIX pages, NAV/RAD page, hard-tuned VORs, and VOR/BRG pre-selects. Analyze NOTAMs carefully for en route airways, en route alternate and emergency airports as well as your destination airport and brief departures and arrivals thoroughly. Listen carefully to lost communication instructions. Ask for lost communication procedures if they are not provided.
Confirm voice contact with ATC if prolonged silence occurs under radar control. Ask ATC to read clearances as many times as necessary to clearly understand them. Ask for verification of your read back if you are uncomfortable. In other words, make sure you know your location and destination.
(1) Cleared Direct To. A clearance from a controller to proceed “direct” may mean proceed via the flight planned route. If the controller issued a request to report “abeam” a bypassed fix, then you can be confident that the clearance conforms to our meaning of “direct.”
In any other circumstance, request clarification and always remain cognizant of MEAs.
(2) Holding. A clearance to hold is expected to be as published. If there is no holding pattern depicted at an en route fix, then the aircraft is expected to hold on the inbound course or radial with right turns. The following is a list of international maximum holding speeds:
• 210 = up to FL 60.
• 220 = FL 60 up to and including FL 140.
• 240 = above FL 140.
(3) Fuel Report. Do not make fuel remaining reports when making ATC position reports on VHF or HF in South America. Naturally, dispatch is interested if you send down manual reports.
b. Safety Thoughts on South American Flying.
• TCAS and GPWS must be operative.
• Ensure terrain clearance by adhering to established routes.
• Only accept altitudes proper for the direction of flight.
• Monitor the position of other aircraft on your route by their reports and ND traffic displays.
• Brief all altitudes for arrival and departure,
• Do not change altitude when crossing an FIR.
• Methods or necessity for pilot-not-flying (PNF) to monitor raw data for departure, approach, and landing.
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