these advancements have not eliminated human errors. Pilot deviations continue to occur and can be attributed to complacency, poor operational procedures, poor understanding of systems and processes, or simply human frailties such as cognitive or auditory failures.
Note: Numerous deviations in oceanic airspace have been caused by flightcrews failing to follow revised clearances. Transposed numbers, misunderstood clearances, or route amendments not properly verified or not passed on to relief crewmembers also contribute to navigation errors.
6.4.8 Navigation Cross-Checking—Acceptable Procedures.
6.4.8.1 In line with the rationale and requirements for navigation cross-checking procedures described in paragraph 6.4.7, the FAA believes cross-checking is synonymous with “making sure.” We consider the “sample oceanic checklists,” provided in Appendix D of this AC, to provide operators with not only a “to-do” list but also a means to make sure certain items, known to result in navigation errors if overlooked or done incorrectly, are performed in an organized, systematic manner.
6.4.8.2 The sample checklists (simple and expanded versions) provided in Appendix D are derived from ICAO NAT OPS Bulletin 2014-001, Sample Oceanic Checklists. We have added to the ICAO version in a few important ways. Most significantly, we have provided two acceptable methods for cross-checking aircraft position at a point approximately 10 minutes after oceanic waypoint passage. Up to now the only recommended method of cross-checking aircraft position in the oceanic airspace environment was manual plotting on a chart. However, a panel of aviation industry and FAA personnel completed an Operational Safety Assessment of methods for cross-checking oceanic flight navigation. The panel determined that an alternative to manual plotting, by which aircraft position could be checked through use of aircraft FMS-driven navigation displays and indications, would provide for an equivalent level of safety. See Appendix D, paragraph D.2.9.2.
6.4.8.3 The check of aircraft position at a point approximately 10 minutes following waypoint passage is designed to enable you to observe and correct a navigation error before safety of flight is jeopardized. If you made a subtle mistake either while en route to or crossing a waypoint, 10 minutes of travel should allow you to observe that mistake before significant problems result.
These cross-checks are a backup to an otherwise well-planned flight that is being executed through systematic and disciplined attention to effective procedures, such as those provided in this chapter and Appendix D.
The cross-checks are not designed to overcome poor planning, sloppy procedures or inadequate attention to detail. To reiterate: in-flight operating drills, to include cross-checking of navigation during oceanic and remote continental airspace operations, are mandatory under ICAO standards.
6-19
6.4.8.4 The FAA recognizes that, for any number of reasons, operators may require or choose to use navigation cross-checking procedures different from those in the oceanic checklist provided in Appendix D. For those operators who require operational approval, whether to operate in oceanic and remote continental airspace in general, to operate in airspace where RNP is prescribed, or to operate within oceanic and remote Special Areas of Operation (SAO), such as North Atlantic High Level Airspace (NAT HLA), their choice of procedures will help establish the basis of that approval. Operational approval will be predicated upon use of either the cross-checking procedures described in the sample oceanic checklist (Appendix D) or via an alternative method that will achieve an equivalent level of safety. In order to determine equivalent levels of flight safety, an operator’s proposed alternative cross-checking procedures will be assessed, by the PI and the regional SAO specialist, against the following criteria:
1. Are they written, standardized, and required for use by the operator’s flightcrews?
2. Do they require use of a plotting or orientation chart, of adequate scale, for reference/situational awareness purposes?
3. Do they address all the major functions/action points
(e.g., independent route verification; at waypoint passage; after waypoint passage) outlined in the sample oceanic checklist?
4. Do they provide for confirming that the aircraft is flying toward, via the expected course/track line, the intended/expected waypoint contained in the flight’s currently effective route clearance?
5. Do they prescribe periodic cross-checking, for reasonableness, of the position data reported by all onboard long range navigation systems?
6. Do they require checking of aircraft position approximately 10 minutes after each oceanic waypoint prescribed in the currently effective route clearance?
7. Do they direct prompt and proper correction for any detected deviations from the currently effective route clearance?
8. Do they establish acceptable tolerances for track deviation, as well as course/heading/distance between waypoints, when compared between the flight plan and the navigation system?
9. Do they include ready reference to, and direct compliance with, accepted in-flight contingency procedures (refer to ICAO Document 4444)?
Note: Alternative methods proposed by certificated operators will also require review/approval by the Air Transportation Division (AFS-200), Flight Standards Service, at FAA headquarters (HQ).
6-20
6.4.8.5 If an operator adopts new oceanic procedures, it is crucial this be done as part of a carefully orchestrated effort in close coordination with both your PI and the regional SAO specialist. Checklists need to be tailored to reflect operator-unique aspects, manuals need to be updated, and crews need to be trained. Failure to properly implement the change can lead to confusion, misunderstandings, and errors.
6.4.8.6 Diligent cross-checking of the FMS and master document against the currently effective route clearance remains the key to preventing inadvertent deviations from the cleared route.
1. The active leg is the most immediate indication of adherence to the currently effective route clearance. The active leg is formed by a “FROM” position and a “TO” waypoint, and features an associated course to fly between the points; this information should be cross-checked against the operational flight plan.
2. In addition to verifying the “TO” waypoint, the FAA also recommends the flightcrew verify autopilot steering mode
(e.g., LNAV/NAV, not Heading (HDG)).
3. When checking waypoints, ensure you look at the “expanded”
(i.e., degrees and minutes) coordinates. Some waypoint labels can be misleading.
6.4.8.7 While the procedures discussed above, and the items provided in the oceanic checklists in Appendix D, emphasize prevention of lateral errors, we want to emphasize that altitude deviations and longitudinal errors are no less significant. Steps to avoid those two types of errors in oceanic operations are discussed further in paragraph 6.1.2.
6.4.9 Relief Pilots—Preparing to Assume Duties. Increasingly, with long-range operations, relief pilots are part of the crew. In such cases, it is vital to brief the relief pilot on all current operational issues affecting the flight.
1. Many navigation errors have been traced back to inadequate handoff between pilots who first loaded the route into the navigation system and relief pilots who took over hours into the flight. You must fully brief the relief pilot on your currently effective route clearance.
2. We recommend the relief pilot verify the current cleared route prior to occupying the seat, if practical. Work from the FMS to the master document to lessen the risk of expectation bias (seeing what is expected) and maintain an attitude of “healthy suspicion.”
6.4.10 Exiting Oceanic and Remote Continental Airspace. Refer to the Coast-In step in the Sample Expanded Oceanic Checklist (Appendix D).
6-21
CHAPTER 7. IN-FLIGHT CONTINGENCY GUIDANCE FOR OPERATIONS
IN OCEANIC AND REMOTE CONTINENTAL AIRSPACE
7.1 Contingency Procedures: When They May Be Needed. ICAO, in PANS-ATM (ICAO Document 4444), section 15-2, has published contingency procedures to allow you to safely deviate from your assigned clearance, in the event a revised clearance cannot first be obtained. The procedures are designed to rapidly separate you from the regular flow of traffic while you address an emergency. Although we can’t cover all possible emergencies you may face, the more common cases that might drive you to fly oceanic contingency procedures include:
1. Unexpected meteorological conditions.
2. Degradations in aircraft performance.
• Aircraft powerplant or pressurization failure.
• Loss of communications capability.
• Loss of, or significant reduction in, navigation capability.
3. Medical situations.
7.1.1 Adhering to Contingency Procedures. Keep in mind that you must follow these contingency procedures precisely as written. If you fail to do so, you incur additional risk by invalidating procedures designed to prevent collisions.
7.2 Choosing the Correct Contingency Procedure.
7.2.1 Primary Guidance. ICAO Document 4444, Section 15-2, contains primary guidance for oceanic contingency procedures. ICAO Document 7030 includes additional, region-specific guidance, generally in Chapter 9 of each regional section. The procedures are also described in the En Route (ENR) 7.3 section of the U.S. AIP.
Note: Whenever possible, obtain a revised clearance instead of flying a contingency procedure. If the nature of the emergency precludes this, consider querying air traffic control (ATC) about safest routes, even if ATC is unable to clear you that way.
7.2.2 General and Weather Deviation Contingency Procedures. A “General” contingency procedure is available, as is a Weather Deviation procedure. Flightcrews should be thoroughly familiar with these procedures and ensure ready access to them on the flight deck so they may be performed precisely and without undue delay.
7.2.2.1 The General procedure results in a 15 NM lateral offset, at an altitude of 500 or 1,000 feet “different from those normally used.” It is reprinted in Appendix F.
7.2.2.2 The Weather Deviation procedure results in an altitude change of 300 feet, when the lateral deviation exceeds 10 NM from centerline. It is also reprinted in Appendix F.
7-1
7.3 Altimetry and/or Navigation Degradation. You must notify the ATS provider as soon as possible if your altimetry and/or navigation systems have degraded below that required to operate in RVSM, RNP, or RNAV airspace. In general, that notification, either via voice or CPDLC, will include the phrase “UNABLE RNP (OR RNAV OR RVSM) DUE TO EQUIPMENT.” Whenever possible, you should request a revised clearance. Upon receipt of your message, ATS providers will assess the traffic situation and either allow you to remain as filed or issue a reroute, depending on your current (and projected future) separation from other traffic.
Note: ICAO NAT Document 007 provides specific contingency procedures to be used in the NAT in the event of navigation system degradation.
7.4 Lost Communications Procedures. The general rules for lost communications are captured in ICAO Annex 2, Chapter 3, and are included in their entirety in ICAO Document 4444, Section 15.3.
7.4.1 Region-Specific Rules. In some regions, ATS authorities have amended the rules to meet their specific ATM requirements. These amended rules are included in ICAO Document 7030, Regional Supplementary Procedures, generally in Chapter 9 of the specific regional supplementary procedures. ICAO NAT Document 007 also provides a detailed discussion of lost communications procedures specific to NAT airspace.
7.4.2 Preflight Preparation. Prior to departure, ensure you are familiar with the lost communications rules for the regions you are transiting. The guidance in the following paragraphs is not all-inclusive and should not be the sole basis for your understanding of the lost communications rules that impact your trip.
7.4.2.1 ATS authorities expect you to maintain your last assigned speed and altitude for some period of time (usually 20 minutes or 60 minutes, depending on the region), then adjust your speed and altitude to conform to your flight plan.
7.4.2.2 If you have received an oceanic clearance, you are expected to proceed to your oceanic entry point and enter at your cleared oceanic FL and airspeed, then fly your ATC-cleared routing, FL, and airspeed through oceanic airspace, picking up your filed flight plan route upon oceanic exit, even if your oceanic clearance differed from your flight planned oceanic routing.
7.4.2.3 If you have not yet received an oceanic clearance, you are expected to proceed to your filed oceanic entry point and fly your filed oceanic routing, FL, and airspeed, then continue along your filed route upon exiting oceanic airspace.
7.4.2.4 You can find specific direction in ICAO Document 4444 and ICAO Document 7030. This direction is not the same for every region, so make sure you understand the procedure for the region(s) through which you intend to operate, as well as those for the national airspace structure you will enter upon exiting oceanic airspace.
7-2
Appendix A APPENDIX A. ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS A.1 Abbreviations.
Acronym Description 14 CFR Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations AC Advisory Circular ACARS Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System (same as TCAS) ACID Aircraft Identification ADIZ Air Defense Identification Zone ADS Automatic Dependent Surveillance ADS-B Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast ADS-C Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Contract AFI Africa and Indian Ocean Region (ICAO) AIM Aeronautical Information Manual AIP Aeronautical Information Publication AIREP Aircraft Reports AMVER Automated Mutual-assistance Vessel Rescue ANP Actual Navigation Performance ARINC Aeronautical Radio, Inc.
ARTCC Air Route Traffic Control Center ATA Actual Time of Arrival ATC Air Traffic Control ATM Air Traffic Management ATOP Advanced Technologies and Oceanic Procedures (also referred to as OCEAN21) ATS Air Traffic Service CDU Control Display Unit CEP Central East Pacific CFP Computer Flight Plan CHDO Certificate-Holding District Office CNS/ATM Communications, Navigation, Surveillance, and Air Traffic Management A-1
Appendix A Acronym Description CPDLC Controller-Pilot Data Link Communications CSP Communication Service Provider CTA Control Area DME Distance Measuring Equipment EDTO Extended Diversion Time Operations ETA Estimated Time of Arrival ETOPS Extended Operations or Extended Twin-Engine Operations ETP Equal Time Point FAA Federal Aviation Administration FANS 1/A Future Air Navigation System 1/A (1=Boeing; A=Airbus) FDE Fault Detection and Exclusion FIR Flight Information Region FL Flight Level FLT ID Flight Identification FMC Flight Management Computer FMC WPR Flight Management Computer Waypoint Position Reporting FMS Flight Management System FPL Flight Plan GNE Gross Navigation Error GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System GOLD Global Operational Data Link Document GPS Global Positioning System HF High Frequency HLA High Level Airspace IATA International Air Transport Association ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization IFBP In-Flight Broadcast Procedure IFR Instrument Flight Rules INS Inertial Navigation System IRS Inertial Reference System A-2
Appendix A Acronym Description LHD Large Height Deviation LNAV Lateral Navigation LOA Letter of Authorization LRCS Long-Range Communication System LRNS Long-Range Navigation System MEL Minimum Equipment List MHz Megahertz MMEL Master Minimum Equipment List MNPS Minimum Navigation Performance Specification MSpecs Management Specifications NAS National Airspace System NAT North Atlantic NAT SOG North Atlantic Safety Oversight Group NAT SPG North Atlantic Systems Planning Group NAT SUPPS North Atlantic Supplementary Procedures NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NAV Navigation NAVAID Navigational Aid NDB Non-Directional Beacon NextGen Next Generation Air Transportation System NM Nautical Miles NOPAC North Pacific NOTAM Notice to Airmen NWS National Weather Service OESB Oceanic Errors Safety Bulletin OpSpecs Operations Specifications OTS Organized Track System PACOTS Pacific Organized Track System PANS-ATM Procedures for Air Navigation Services—Air Traffic Management (ICAO Document 4444) PANS-OPS Procedures for Air Navigation Services-Aircraft Operations A-3
Appendix A Acronym Description (ICAO Document 8168) PBN Performance-Based Navigation PIC Pilot in Command PIREP Pilot Weather Report POI Principal Operations Inspector PPO Prior Permission Only RA Resolution Advisory RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring RCP Required Communications Performance RNAV Area Navigation RNP Required Navigation Performance RSP Required Surveillance Performance RVSM Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum SAO Special Areas of Operation SAR Search and Rescue SARPs Standards and Recommended Practices (ICAO) SATCOM Satellite Communications SATVOICE Satellite Voice Communications SELCAL Selective Calling SIGWX Significant Weather SLOP Strategic Lateral Offset Procedure SLRCS Single Long-Range Communication System SOP Standard Operating Procedure SPR Safety and Performance Requirements SSR Secondary Surveillance Radar SVOM Satellite Voice Operations Manual (ICAO) TCAS Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System TKE Track Angle Error TSO Technical Standard Order UTC Coordinated Universal Time VAAC Volcanic Ash Advisory Center A-4
Appendix A Acronym Description VFR Visual Flight Rules VHF Very High Frequency VOR/DME Very High Frequency Omni-directional Range Station/Distance Measuring Equipment WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System WebOPSS Web-based Operations Safety System A.2 Definitions.
A.2.1 Advisory Airspace. Airspace of defined dimensions, or a designated route, within which air traffic advisory service is available.
A.2.2 Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). A primary FAA publication whose purpose is to instruct airmen on flight operations in the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS).
The AIM provides basic flight information, ATC procedures, and general instructional information concerning health, medical facts, factors affecting flight safety, accident and hazard reporting, and types of aeronautical charts and their use.
A.2.3 Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) (ICAO). A publication issued by or with the authority of a State and containing aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air navigation.
A.2.4 Aeronautical Telecommunication Station. An aeronautical station which forms part of a radio telephone network by providing air/ground communications and flight information service as an integral part of ATS. Aeronautical telecommunication stations are also known as international Flight Service Stations (FSS), Aeronautical Radio, or Aeradio Stations, depending on the State providing the service.
A.2.5 Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) (ICAO). An aircraft system based on Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) transponder signals, which operates independently of ground-based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential conflicting aircraft that are equipped with SSR transponders.
A.2.6 Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ). Airspace over land or water, extending upward from the surface, within which the ready identification, location, and control of aircraft are required in the interest of national security.
A.2.7 Air Traffic Advisory Services (ICAO). A service provided within advisory airspace to ensure separation, in so far as practical, between aircraft that are operating on IFR flight plans.
A.2.8 Air Traffic Service (ATS) (ICAO). A generic term meaning variously flight information service, alerting service, air traffic advisory service, air traffic control service, area control service, or approach control service.
A-5
Appendix A A.2.9 Air Traffic Management (ATM) (ICAO). The dynamic, integrated management of air traffic and airspace including ATS, airspace management, and air traffic flow management—safely, economically, and efficiently—through the provision of facilities and seamless services in collaboration with all parties and involving airborne and ground-based functions.
A.2.10 Air Traffic Management (ATM) System (ICAO). A system that provides ATM through the collaborative integration of humans, information, technology, facilities, and services, supported by air and ground- and/or space-based communications, navigation, and surveillance.
A.2.11 Alerting Service (ICAO). A service provided to notify appropriate organizations regarding aircraft in need of Search and Rescue (SAR) aid and to assist such organizations as required.
A.2.12 Area Control Center (ACC) (ICAO). A unit established to provide ATC service to controlled flights in control areas under its jurisdiction. ACCs are the international equivalent of U.S. air route traffic control centers (ARTCC).
A.2.13 Areas of Magnetic Unreliability (AMU). As aircraft move towards the Earth’s north or south magnetic pole, the horizontal field strength reduces and the ability of the compass to accurately sense magnetic north is reduced. It is generally recognized that when the horizontal magnetic field strength falls below 6000 nanotesla, the magnetic compass can no longer be considered to be reliable.
A.2.14 Area Navigation (RNAV) (ICAO). A method of navigation that permits aircraft operation on any desired flight path within the coverage of ground- or space-based navigation aids or within the limits of the capability of self-contained systems or a combination of these.
RNAV includes Performance-based Navigation (PBN), as well as other operations that do not meet the definition of PBN.
A.2.15 ATS Surveillance System (ICAO). A generic term meaning variously, ADS-B, Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR), SSR, or any comparable ground-based system that enables the identification of aircraft. A comparable ground-based system is one that has been demonstrated, by comparative assessment or other methodology, to have a level of safety and performance equal to or better than monopulse SSR.
A.2.16 Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS). A surveillance technique in which aircraft automatically provide, via a data link, data derived from onboard navigation and position fixing systems, including aircraft identification, four-dimensional position, and additional data as appropriate.
A.2.16.1 Automatic Dependent Surveillance—Broadcast (ADS-B) (ICAO).
A surveillance system by which aircraft, aerodrome vehicles, and other objects can automatically transmit and/or receive data such as identification, position, and additional data, as appropriate, in a broadcast mode via a data link. ADS-B Out operations involve information transmitted from an aircraft for surveillance purposes. ADS-B In operations involve transmissions A-6