(5) Takeoff. Landing lights should be turned on when takeoff clearance is received, or when commencing takeoff roll at an airport without an operating control tower.
11. SUMMARY.
a. Taxi operations require constant vigilance on the part of pilots. Pilots need to be continually aware of the movement and location of other aircraft and ground vehicles. Taxi operations require the same planning, coordination, and proper execution as other phases of flight operations. Sterile cockpit discipline is always appropriate while taxiing, even under normal weather conditions.
b. During low-visibility taxi operations, additional vigilance is absolutely essential. Pilots must pay particularly close attention to instructions from ATC and must insist on correct readback and hearback. Additionally, pilots should pay close attention to readback and hearback between ATC and other aircraft. Any ambiguity or uncertainty should be promptly resolved by clarification with ATC. When clear of an active runway, pilots should be prepared to stop in position to resolve any questions about position on the airport or clearance from ATC.
c. Safe aircraft operations can be accomplished and incidents eliminated if pilots are properly trained and correctly accomplish standard taxi operating procedures and practices.
/s/ John M. Allen, for James J. Ballough Director, Flight Standards Service Par 10 Page 13 (and 14)
Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1
Runway Incursion Prevention Introduction
The Philosophy of Using Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for Runway Incursion Prevention
SOPs provide a structure that helps to decrease the probability of human error and capture errors before they result in a runway incursion. By applying SOPs to surface operations, pilots can reduce the probability of a runway incursion by increasing and maintaining situational awareness. Situational awareness is a continuous process of attentiveness and surveillance.
Situational awareness includes knowing:
o The location of the aircraft o Weather o Traffic o The clearance from Air Traffic Control (ATC) o All other factors that affect the safety of the flight
The SOPs contained in this document are designed to help pilots use all available resources to detect and correct errors – both their own, pilots of other aircraft, and air traffic controllers – before they result in a runway incursion. Implementation of these SOPs is a low-cost action with a potential for a high return in a reduction of incidents.
Standard Operating Procedures
1. Pilots should give themselves a pre-taxi/departure briefing that includes the expected taxi route and restrictions.
2. After taxi clearance has been received, determine the runway assigned, any restrictions, and the taxi route. If in doubt, seek clarification from ATC.
4. Observe “sterile cockpit,” especially while taxiing.
5. Have the airport diagram out, available, and in use.
6. Fixed navigation lights (red, green, and white) must be on whenever the airplane is in motion.
7. Monitor the appropriate tower frequency when anticipating a clearance to cross or taxi onto an active runway.
Appendix 1
8. When approaching an entrance to an active runway, verify compliance with hold short or crossing clearance. Discontinue other tasks (e.g., Flight Management System (FMS) programming, Airborne Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS), company radio calls, etc.).
9. Prior to crossing or taxiing onto any runway visually scan the runway and approach area.
10. Read back all clearances/instructions to enter a specific runway, hold short of a runway, and taxi into “position and hold,” including the runway designator.
NOTE: Do not merely acknowledge the foregoing instructions/clearances by using your call sign and saying “Roger” or “Wilco.” Instead, read back the entire instruction/clearance including the runway designator.
11. When entering a runway after being cleared for takeoff, or when taxiing into position and hold, make your aircraft more conspicuous to aircraft on final behind you and to ATC by turning on lights (except landing lights) that highlight your aircraft’s silhouette.
12. Be especially vigilant when instructed to taxi into “position and hold,” particularly at night or during periods of reduced visibility. Scan the full length of the runway and scan for aircraft on final approach when taxiing onto a runway either at the end of the runway or at an intersection. Contact ATC anytime you have a concern about a potential conflict.
a. In instances where you have been instructed to taxi into “position and hold” and have been advised of a reason/condition (wake turbulence, traffic on an intersecting runway, etc.) or the reason/condition is clearly visible (another aircraft that has landed on or is taking off on the same runway), and the reason/condition is satisfied, you should expect an imminent takeoff clearance, unless advised of a delay.
b. If landing traffic is a factor, the tower is required to inform you of the closest traffic that is cleared to land, touch-and-go, stop-and-go, or unrestricted low approach on the same runway when clearing you to taxi into “position and hold.” Take care to note the position of that traffic and be especially aware of the elapsed time from the “position and hold” clearance while waiting for the takeoff clearance.
c. ATC should advise you of any delay in receiving your takeoff clearance (e.g., “expect delay for wake turbulence”) while holding in position. If a takeoff clearance is not received within a reasonable time after clearance to “position and hold,” contact ATC. Suggested phraseology: (call sign) holding in position (runway designator or intersection). For example, “American 234 holding in position runway 24L” or “American 234 holding in position runway 24L at Bravo.”
NOTE: FAA analysis of accidents and incidents involving aircraft holding in position indicate that TWO MINUTES or more elapsed between the time the instruction w as issued to “position a nd hold” and the resulting event (e.g., landover or go-around). Pilots should co nsider the length of time that they Page 2
Appendix 1 have been holding in position w henever they HAVE NOT been a dvised of any expected delay to determin e w hen it’s appropriate to que ry the controller.
13. To signal intent to aircraft downfield, turn on landing lights when cleared for takeoff.
14. As part of your approach checklist, review the airport diagram and anticipated taxi route.
CAUTION A potential pitfall of pre-taxi and pre-la nding planning is setting expectations and then receiving different ins tructions from ATC. Pilots need to ensure that they follow the clearan ce or instru ctions that are actually received, a nd not the ones they expected to receive from ATC.
Recommended Practices and Techniques
1. State your position whenever making initial contact with any tower or ground controller, regardless of whether you have previously stated your position to a different controller.
2. Write down non-standard or complex taxi instructions.
3. To signal intent to other pilots, consider turning on the taxi light when the aircraft is moving or intending to move on the ground, and turning it off when stopped, yielding, or as a consideration to other pilots or ground personnel.
4. At night, use edge lights to distinguish between taxiways (blue) and runways (white).
5. Minimize “heads-down” activities, such as entering data into the FMS, while the aircraft is moving.
6. When visually scanning the runway and approach area, mentally confirm scan results (e.g., “clear right,” “clear left”).
7. When holding in position for takeoff, actively monitor the assigned tower frequency or the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) for potential conflicts involving your runway.
8. If unsure of position and on a runway, immediately clear the runway and notify ATC.
Always notify ATC if you are unsure of your position; consider requesting “progressive taxi.”
9. When taxi visibility is low, pilots should perform heads down tasks (e.g., programming the FMS, calculating takeoff data) while the aircraft is stopped.
10. To confirm proper runway or taxiway selection, verify that the compass heading approximately matches the runway heading and taxiway orientation.
Appendix 1
11. Some cockpit displays of traffic information (such as some implementations of Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)) have the capability and sufficient resolution to enable the display of traffic behind you. When holding in position, consider displaying traffic landing behind you to increase your awareness of the traffic situation.
12. When holding in position at night, consider lining up slightly to the left or right of centerline (approximately 3 feet) to better enable a landing aircraft to visually differentiate the holding aircraft from runway lights.
13. When on final approach, actively monitor the assigned tower frequency (or CTAF) for potential conflicts involving your runway.
14. Do not accept last minute turnoff instructions from the tower unless you clearly understand the instructions and are certain that you can comply.
Appendix 2 APPENDIX 2
Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) Template for Ground Operations and the Prevention of Runway Incursions
A manual or section of a manual that serves as the pilot’s guide to SOPs may double as a training guide. The contents should be clear and comprehensive. This template includes topics that industry and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) have selected as useful for developing effective SOPs for operations on the ground and on approach with an emphasis in the prevention of runway incursions. It does not include every topic that might apply, such as those that apply to special operating authority or new technology (such as Extended Range Operations with Two- Engine Airplanes (ETOPS), Precision Runway Monitor (PRM), Surface Movement Guidance System (SMGS), and required navigation performance (RNP)).
• Captain’s authority
• Use of automation o The operator’s automation philosophy o Specific guidance in selection of appropriate levels of automation o Autopilot/flight director mode control inputs o Flight Management System (FMS) inputs
• Checklist philosophy o Policies and procedures (who calls for, who reads, who does) o Format and terminology o Type of checklist Challenge-Do-Verify Do-Verify o Walk-around
• Checklists o Safety check – power on o Originating/receiving o Before start o After start o Before takeoff o Preliminary landing o Landing o After landing o Parking and securing o Emergency procedures o Non-normal/abnormal procedures
Appendix 2
• Communications o Who handles radios o Primary language used o Air Traffic Control (ATC) o On the flightdeck o Keeping both pilots in the loop o Company radio procedures o Flightdeck to cabin signals o Passenger briefing o Cabin to flightdeck signals o Procedure to review/crosscheck clearances Cross or hold short of a runway Taxi into position and hold Takeoff Land
• Briefings o Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) risk consideration o Special airport qualifications o Special security considerations o Temperature considerations o Before taxi o Before takeoff o Descent/approach/missed approach
• Flightdeck access o Onground/in-flight o Jumpseat o Access signals, keys
• Flightdeck discipline o Sterile cockpit – in-flight and on the ground o Maintaining outside vigilance o Transfer of control o Additional duties o Flight kits o Special security equipment o Headsets/speakers o Boom mikes/handsets o Maps/approach charts o Meals
• Boarding passengers/cargo o Special security considerations o Carry-on baggage o Exit row seating Page 2
Appendix 2 o Hazardous materials o Prisoners/escorted persons o Guns onboard o Count/load
• Pushback/powerback
• Taxiing o Single engine o All engines o Contaminated Runways Ice Snow Water Slush o Prevention of runway incursions Use of airport diagram Crew confirmation of taxi clearance Visually clear final approach path and the runway before crossing or taking any active runway Complex intersections, airfield construction, and “hot spots”
• Crew Resource Management (CRM) o Crew briefings Flight attendants Flightcrew
• Weight and balance/cargo loading o Who is responsible for loading cargo, and securing cargo o Who prepares the weight and balance data form; who checks it Copy to crew
• Flightdeck/cabin crew coordination o Boarding o Ready to taxi o Cabin emergency o Prior to takeoff/landing
• Approach philosophy o Precision approaches preferred o Stabilized approaches standard o Use of navigation aids o FMS/autopilot o Use, and when to discontinue use o Approach gates o Limits for stabilized approaches Page 3
Appendix 2 o Use of radio altimeter o Briefing for expected runway prior to beginning approach o Go-arounds:
Plan to go around Change plan to land when visual, if stabilized
• Individual approach type o All types, including engine-out
• For each approach o Profile o Flap/gear extension o Callouts o Procedures
• Go-around/missed approach o When stabilized approach gates are missed o Procedure o Callouts o Clean-up profile
• Landing o Actions and callouts o Configuration for conditions Visual approach Low visibility Contaminated runway o Close-in turns o Crosswind o Rejected o Transfer of control after first officer landing o Anticipated landing runway and taxiway exit designation and direction of turn to the first hold short point Page 4
Appendix 3 APPENDIX 3
Sample Procedures for Taxi – Departure and Arrival
*Readback all runway crossing, hold short, and taxi into position and hold instructions.
Before starting engines - Airport Diagram........................................................Review and keep available
Engine start -
Rotating beaconON
Engine start checklistComplete
Before taxi - Taxi clearance .........................................................................Noted/Readback* Airport Diagram........................................................Review and keep available
Navigation lightsON
Taxi light (night operations)ON
Taxi -
Ground FrequencyMonitor
Taxiway intersections .................................................If in doubt, verify cleared Runway crossings .......................................................If in doubt, verify cleared
Before crossing a runway - Runway surface.........................................................Scan for conflicting traffic Approach/departure ends ........................................Scan for approaching traffic
Crossing runway - Expedite ...........Until entire aircraft clear of runway holding position markings
Arrival at active runway - Hold short of runway holding position markings Ready for takeoff ........................................................................... Advise tower
Entering active runway for takeoff - Takeoff clearance.......................................................... Received and Readback Runway surface.........................................................Scan for conflicting traffic Approach/departure ends ........................................Scan for approaching traffic
Strobes/logo lightsOn
Takeoff..........................................................Light on -- Expedite when cleared
Non-towered airports:
Announce taxi intentions on Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF)/Unicom Do a 360-degree scan for inbound and non-radio aircraft before entering runway Page 1
Appendix 3
In range/descent (10 nautical miles (NM) out and at or below 10,000 for turboprop and jet aircraft) - Airport Diagram........................................................Review and keep available
Landing/Strobe/logo lightsOn
Exiting runway - Taxi instructions/hold shorts...................................................Noted/Readback* Expedite .........Until your aircraft is clear of runway holding position markings
Taxi after landing -
Taxi clearanceReceived
Taxiway intersections .................................................If in doubt, verify cleared Runway crossings .......................................................If in doubt, verify cleared
Before crossing a runway - Runway surface.........................................................Scan for conflicting traffic Approach/departure ends ........................................Scan for approaching traffic
Crossing runway - Expedite ...........Until entire aircraft clear of runway holding position markings
Arrival at parking - Shut-down checklist