12-1 CHAPTER 12. ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
12.1 Introduction. Convective clouds and precipitation pose a distinctly different flying environment than stratiform clouds and precipitation. These sharply contrasting conditions result from the atmosphere either resisting or accelerating the vertical motion of air parcels. Atmospheric stability is the property of the ambient air that either enhances or suppresses vertical motion of air parcels and determines which type of clouds and precipitation a pilot will encounter.
12.2 Using a Parcel as a Tool to Evaluate Stability. An air parcel can be used as a tool to evaluate atmospheric stability within a specified vertical column of air in the atmosphere. A parcel is selected from a specified altitude (usually the surface) and hypothetically lifted upward to a specified test altitude. As the parcel is lifted, its temperature decreases due to the expansion and latent heat effects discussed in Chapter 11.
The parcel and the surrounding environmental air temperatures are then compared. If the lifted parcel is colder than the surrounding air, it will be denser (heavier) and sink back to its original level. In this case, the parcel is stable because it resists upward displacement. If the lifted parcel is the same temperature as the surrounding air, it will be the same density and remain at the same level. In this case, the parcel is neutrally stable. If the lifted parcel is warmer and, therefore, less dense (lighter) than the surrounding air, it will continue to rise on its own until it reaches the same temperature as its environment. This final case is an example of an unstable parcel. Greater temperature differences result in greater rates of vertical motion.
12.3 Stability Types. The stability of a column of air in the atmosphere is classified by the distribution of parcel stabilities within the column. The Earth’s surface is typically selected as the base while the top determines the column’s depth. Five unique types of atmospheric stability can be identified.
12.3.1 Absolute Stability. Absolute stability (see Figure 12-1) is the state of a column of air in the atmosphere when its lapse rate of temperature is less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate. This includes both isothermal and inversion temperature profiles. An air parcel lifted upward would be colder (denser) than the surrounding environmental air and would tend to sink back to its level of origin.
Figure 12-1. Absolute Stability Example Environmental Parcel Temperature Parcel Air Temperature/ Difference Stability Temperature Dewpoint °C 5 18°C 717 + 11°C Stable 4 19°C 9/9 +10°C Stable 1000's OF FEET 3 Lifting Condensation Level 20°C 11/11 +9°C Stable (LCL) 2 21°C (14/11.5 +7°C Stable 1 20°C 17/12 +3°C Stable 20°C R0/12.5
12.3.2 Neutral Stability. Neutral stability (see Figure 12-2) is the state of a column of air in the atmosphere in which an ascending (or descending) air parcel always has the same temperature (density) as the surrounding environmental air. If the column of air is unsaturated, then neutral stability exists when its lapse rate of temperature equals the dry adiabatic lapse rate. If the column of air is saturated, then neutral stability exists when its lapse rate of temperature equals the moist adiabatic lapse rate.
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8/23/16 Figure 12-2. Neutral Stability Example Environmental Parcel Air Temperature/ Temperature Dewpoint °C 5 7°C 717 0°C 4 9°C 9/9 200 1000's OF FEET 3 Lifting Condensation Level 11°C 11/11 0°C Neutral (LCL) 2 14°C /14/11.5 0°C Neutral 1 17°C 17/12 0°C Neutral 20°C 20/12.5
12.3.3 Absolute Instability. Absolute instability (see Figure 12-3) is the state of a column of air in the atmosphere when it has a superadiabatic lapse rate of temperature (i.e., greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate). An air parcel displaced vertically would be accelerated in the direction of the displacement. The kinetic energy of the parcel would consequently increase with increasing distance from its level of origin.
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Figure 12-3. Absolute Instability Example Environmental Parcel Temperature Parcel Air Temperature/ Difference Stability Temperature Dewpoint °C 5 0°C 717 -7°C Unstable 4 4°C 9/9 -5°C Unstable 1000's OF FEET 3 Lifting Condensation Level 8°C 11/11 -3°C Unstable (LCL) 2 12°C (14/11.5 -2°C Unstable 1 16°C 17/12 - 1°C Unstable 20°C 20/12.5
12.3.4 Conditional Instability. Conditional instability (see Figure 12-4) is the state of a column of unsaturated air in the atmosphere when its lapse rate of temperature is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, but greater than the moist adiabatic lapse rate. An air parcel lifted upward would be initially stable, but at some point above its Lifted Condensation Level (LCL) it would become unstable. The term conditional means the parcel must be lifted to a particular level (altitude) before it becomes unstable and rises because of its own buoyancy. The Level of Free Convection (LFC) is the level at which a parcel of air lifted dry adiabatically until saturated and moist adiabatically thereafter would first become warmer than the surrounding environmental air (i.e., unstable) in a conditionally unstable column of air in the atmosphere. The LFC is a defining feature of a conditionally unstable column of air.
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Figure 12-4. Conditional Instability Example Environmental Parcel Air Temperature/ Temperature Dewpoint °C 5 6°C 717 - 1°C 4 Level of Free Convection 9°C 9/9 0°C (LFC) 1000's OF FEET Lifting Condensation Level 12°C 11/11 JoLt Stable (LCL) 2 15°C (14/11.5 JoLt Stable 1 18°C 17/12 +1°C 20°C 20/12.5 12-5
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12.3.5 Summary of Stability Types. Figure 12-5 below summarizes the possible atmospheric stability types.
Figure 12-5. Stability Types
Temperature Sounding Unsaturated Parcel Saturated Parcel Stability Type A Unstable Unstable Absolute Instability B Neutral Unstable C Stable Unstable Conditional Instability D Stable Neutral E Stable Stable Lapse Absolute Stability F Stable Stable Isothermal G Stable Stable Inversion
12.4 Processes that Change Atmospheric Stability. Changes in atmospheric stability are inversely related to temperature (density) changes with height (see Figure 12-6).
If temperature lapse rates increase, then stability decreases. Conversely, if temperature lapse rates decrease, then stability increases. Most of these changes occur as a result of the movement of air, but diurnal (day/night) temperature variations can play a significant role.
Figure 12-6. Temperature Lapse Rate Effects on Stability Environmental Parcel Temperature Environmental Parcel Temperature Air Temperature/ Difference Air Temperature/ Difference Temperature Dewpoint°C Temperature Dewpoint °C 4 11°C 3/1 +8°C 7°C 8/1 - 1°C 3 12°C 6/1.5 +6°C 10°C 11/1.5 - 1°C 1000's OF FEET 2 13°C 9/2 +4°C 13°C 14/2 -1°C 14ºC 12/2.5 +2°C 16°C 17/2.5 -1°C 15°C 15/3 20°C 20/3 More Stable Less Stable The column of air on the right is less stable because its temperature lapse rate is higher.
12.4.1 Wind Effects on Stability. Wind can act to change the stability of a column of air in the atmosphere by changing the temperature lapse rate. Stability increases when wind blows colder air into the bottom of the air column (cold air advection) and/or warmer air at the top (warm air advection). Conversely, stability decreases when wind blows warmer air into the bottom of the air column and/or colder air at the top.
12.4.2 Vertical Air Motion Effects on Stability. A column of air in the atmosphere will become more stable when it descends (subsides) (see Figure 12-7). As it subsides, it becomes compressed by the weight of the atmosphere and shrinks vertically. The entire layer warms due to adiabatic compression. However, the upper part of the column sinks farther and, thus, warms more than the bottom part. This process acts to decrease the temperature lapse rate and increase stability.
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12-8 Conversely, a column of air in the atmosphere will become less stable when it ascends (rises). As it rises, the rapid decrease in air density aloft causes the column to stretch out vertically. As long as the layer remains unsaturated, the entire layer cools at the dry adiabatic lapse rate (see Table 11-1). However, due to the stretching effect, air at the top of the column cools more than the air at the bottom of the column. This process acts to increase the temperature lapse rate and decrease stability.
Figure 12-7. Vertical Motion Effects on Stability
A rising column of air will become less stable when air at the bottom has a higher relative humidity than air at the top. As the air moves upward, the bottom becomes saturated first and cools at the lesser moist adiabatic lapse rate (see paragraph 11.2). The net effect is to increase the lapse rate within the column and decrease stability. This process is called convective instability, and is associated with the development of thunderstorms.
12.4.3 Diurnal Temperature Variation Effects on Stability. Diurnal (day/night) temperature variations (see Figure 12-8) can have a significant impact on atmospheric stability.
Daytime heating of the surface increases temperature lapse rates and decreases stability.
Conversely, nighttime cooling of the surface decreases temperature lapse rates and increases stability. Diurnal temperature variations are most pronounced in the lower troposphere because air is a poor conductor of heat (see Table 2-3).
12-9 The magnitude of diurnal temperature (and stability) variation is primarily influenced by surface type, latitude, sky cover (e.g., clouds and pollutants), water vapor content of the air, and wind speed. Temperature variation is maximized over land, at low latitudes, with a clear sky, dry air, and light wind. Conversely, temperature variation is minimized over large bodies of water, at high latitudes, with a cloudy sky, moist air, and strong wind.
Figure 12-8. Diurnal Temperature Variation Effects on Stability
12.5 Measurements of Stability. Several stability indexes and other quantities exist that evaluate atmospheric stability and the potential for convective storms. The most common of these are Lifted Index (LI) and Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE).
12.5.1 Lifted Index. The LI (see Figure 12-9) is the temperature difference between an air parcel (usually at the surface) lifted adiabatically (see Chapter 11) and the temperature of the environment at a given pressure (usually 500 millibars) in the atmosphere. A positive value indicates a stable column of air (at the respective pressure), a negative value indicates an unstable column of air, and a value of zero indicates a neutrally stable column of air. The larger the positive (negative) LI value, the more stable (unstable) the column of air.
12-10 LI is generally used in thunderstorm forecasting; however, CAPE is generally considered a superior measurement of instability. However, LI is easier to determine without using a computer.
Figure 12-9. Lifted Index Example
12.5.2 Convective Available Potential Energy. CAPE is the maximum amount of energy available to an ascending air parcel for convection. CAPE is represented on a sounding by the area enclosed between the environmental temperature profile and the path of a rising air parcel over the layer within which the latter is warmer than the former.
Units are joules per kilogram of air (J/kg). Any value greater than 0 joules per kilogram indicates instability and the possibility of thunderstorms.
CAPE is directly related to the maximum potential vertical speed within an updraft; thus, higher values indicate the potential for stronger updrafts. Observed values in thunderstorm environments often exceed 1,000 joules per kilogram, and in extreme cases may exceed 5,000 joules per kilogram.
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12.6 Summary. Atmospheric stability influences weather by affecting the vertical motion of air. Stable air suppresses vertical motion while unstable air enhances it. Chapter 13 will discuss how stability determines cloud and precipitation type.
13-1 CHAPTER 13. CLOUDS
13.1 Introduction. A cloud is a visible aggregate of minute water droplets and/or ice particles in the atmosphere above the Earth’s surface. Fog differs from cloud only in that the base of fog is at the Earth’s surface while clouds are above the surface. Clouds are like signposts in the sky that provide information on air motion, stability, and moisture.
Clouds help pilots visualize weather conditions and potential weather hazards.
Clouds form in the atmosphere as a result of condensation of water vapor in rising currents of air, or by the evaporation of the lowest layer of fog. Rising currents of air are necessary for the formation of vertically deep clouds capable of producing precipitation heavier than light intensity, so we will focus on that process in this chapter.
13.2 Cloud Forms. There are four basic cloud forms (appearances) observed in the Earth’s atmosphere (see Table 13-1).
Table 13-1. Cloud Forms
Cirriform High-level clouds that form above 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) and are usually composed of ice crystals. High-level clouds are typically thin and white in appearance, but can create an array of colors when the sun is low on the horizon. Cirrus generally occur in fair weather and point in the direction of air movement at their elevation.
Nimbus Nimbus comes from the Latin word meaning “rain.” These clouds typically form between 7,000 and 15,000 feet (2,100 to 4,600 meters) and bring steady precipitation. As the clouds thicken and precipitation begins to fall, the bases of the clouds tend to lower toward the ground.
Cumuliform Clouds that look like white, fluffy cotton balls or heaps and show the vertical motion or thermal uplift of air taking place in the atmosphere. The level at which condensation and cloud formation begins is indicated by a flat cloud base, and its height will depend upon the humidity of the rising air. The more humid the air, the lower the cloud base. The tops of these clouds can reach over 60,000 feet (18,000 meters).
Stratiform Stratus is Latin for “layer” or “blanket.” The clouds consist of a featureless low layer that can cover the entire sky like a blanket, bringing generally gray and dull weather. The cloud bases are usually only a few hundred feet above the ground. Over hills and mountains, they can reach ground level when they may be called fog. Also, as fog lifts off the ground due to daytime heating, the fog forms a layer of low stratus clouds.
From National Weather Service (NWS) Jetstream – Online School for Weather