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• When an isopleth is complete, all data values must be higher than the isopleth’s value on one side of the line and lower on the other.
• A closed loop isopleth must contain an embedded extremum (maximum or minimum).
• When a maximum (minimum) is identified, data values must decrease (increase) in all directions away from it.
• Isopleths can never overlap, intersect, or cross over extrema.
It is impossible for one location to have more than one data value simultaneously.
• Each isopleth must be labeled. A label must be drawn wherever an isopleth exits the data domain. For closed loop isopleths, a break in the loop must be created where a label can be drawn. For very long and/or complex isopleths, breaks should be created where additional labels can be drawn, as necessary.
• Extrema must be labeled. Extrema are often denoted by an “x” embedded within a circle. Beneath the label, the analyzed value of the field must be written and underlined.
• Isopleths and labels should not be drawn over the data point values.
If necessary, breaks in the isopleths should be created so that the data point values can still be read.
Figure 6-3. Analysis Procedure Step 2: Draw the Isopleths and Extrema
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6.3.1.3 Step 3: Identify Significant Weather Features. The third (and final) step is to interpret significant weather features. The conventional labels for extrema are H (high) and L (low) for pressure and height, W (warm) and K (cold) for temperature (they stand for the German words for warm and cold), and X (maxima) and N (minima) for all other elements. Troughs, ridges, and other significant features are often identified as well. Table 6-2 below provides a list of the most common weather chart symbols. Refer to AC 00-45 for details on specific NWS weather charts.
Table 6-2. Common Weather Chart Symbols Feature Symbol Definition Low
A minimum of atmospheric pressure in two dimensions (closed isobars) on a surface chart, or a minimum of height (closed contours) on a constant pressure chart. Also known as a cyclone.
High
A maximum of atmospheric pressure in two dimensions (closed isobars) on a surface chart, or a maximum of height (closed contours) on a constant pressure chart. Also known as an anti-cyclone.
Trough
An elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure or height.
Ridge
An elongated area of relatively high atmospheric pressure or height. May also be used as reference to other meteorological quantities, such as temperature and dewpoint.
In the surface pressure analysis below in Figure 6-4, a high, low, trough, and ridge have been identified.
Figure 6-4. Analysis Procedure Step 3: Interpret Significant Weather Features 1009 1008 1007 1004 1000 996 996 1009 1003 9971 994 993 997 10121012 1008 992 1010 101516013 1005 999 993 995 997 1018 998 993 989 1017 1009 99 1010 (101-1013 1001 999 998 1005 998 998 1008 1010 1015 1011 1006 1002 1000 1000 1000 1000 101 1009 999 • 998 1005/ 1002 1000 1003 1008 1009 1010 1008 1004 10011 1000 1001 1002
6.4 Surface Chart. A surface chart (also called surface map or sea level pressure chart) is an analyzed chart of surface weather observations. Essentially, a surface chart shows the distribution of sea level pressure, including the positions of highs, lows, ridges, and troughs, and the location and character of fronts and various boundaries, such as drylines, outflow boundaries, and sea breeze fronts. Although the pressure is referred to as MSL, all other elements on this chart are presented as they occur at the surface point of observation. A chart in this general form is the one commonly referred to as the weather map.
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6-7 Figure 6-5. Example of a Surface Chart
6.5 Constant Pressure Chart. A constant pressure chart (also called an isobaric chart) is a weather map representing conditions on a surface of equal atmospheric pressure.
For example, a 500 millibar chart will display conditions at the level of the atmosphere at which the atmospheric pressure is 500 millibars. Constant pressure charts usually contain plotted data and analyses of the distribution of height of the surface (contours), wind (isotachs), temperature (isotherms), and sometimes humidity (isohumes).
The height above sea level at which the pressure is that particular value may vary from one location to another at any given time, and also varies with time at any one location, so it does not represent a surface of constant altitude/height (i.e., the 500 millibar level may be at a different height above sea level over Dallas than over New York at a given time, and may also be at a different height over Dallas from one day to the next).
Constant pressure charts are most commonly known by their pressure value.
For example, the 1,000 millibar chart (which closely corresponds to the surface chart), the 850 millibar chart, 700 millibar chart, 500 millibar chart, etc.
6-8 A contour analysis (see Figure 6-6) can reveal highs, ridges, lows, and troughs aloft just as the surface chart shows such systems at the surface. These systems of highs/ridges and lows/troughs are called pressure waves. These pressure waves are similar to waves seen on bodies of water. They have crests (ridges) and valleys (troughs).
Figure 6-6. Example of a 500 Millibar Constant Pressure Chart
7-1 CHAPTER 7. WIND
7.1 Introduction. Wind is the air in motion relative to the surface of the Earth. Although we cannot actually see the air moving, we can measure its motion by the force that it applies on objects. For example, leaves rustling or trees swaying on a windy day indicate that the wind is blowing. Winds are a major factor to both weather and aircraft.
Winds cause the formation, dissipation, and redistribution of weather. Winds also affect aircraft during all phases of flight. This chapter discusses how winds are named and the origin of wind.
7.2 Naming of the Wind. Wind is named according to the direction from which it is blowing. For example, a west wind indicates the wind is blowing from the west to the east. In aviation, 36 points of the compass are normally used to represent the direction from which the wind is blowing. For example, north winds come from 360°, east from 90°, south from 180°, and west from 270°.
7.3 Forces That Affect the Wind. Three primary forces affect the flow of wind: Pressure Gradient Force (PGF), Coriolis force, and friction.
7.3.1 Pressure Gradient Force (PGF). Wind is driven by pressure differences which create a force called the Pressure Gradient Force (PGF). Whenever a pressure difference develops over an area, the PGF makes the wind blow in an attempt to equalize pressure differences. This force is identified by height contour gradients on constant pressure charts and by isobar gradients on surface charts.
PGF is directed from higher height/pressure to lower height/pressure and is perpendicular to contours/isobars. Whenever a pressure difference develops over an area, the PGF begins moving the air directly across the contours/isobars.
Figure 7-1. Direction of Pressure Gradient Force
PGF is directed across contours/isobars towards lower height/pressure.
7-2 Wind speed is directly proportional to the PGF, which itself is directly proportional to the contour/isobar gradient. Closely spaced contours/isobars indicate strong winds, while widely spaced contours/isobars mean lighter wind. From a pressure analysis, you can get a general idea of wind speed from contour/isobar spacing.
Figure 7-2. Magnitude of Pressure Gradient Force
On the left panel, the contours/isobars are widely spaced apart, PGF is weak, and the wind speed is weak. On the right panel, the contours/isobars are more closely spaced, the PGF is stronger, and the wind speed is stronger.
The wind would flow from high to low pressure if the PGF was the only force acting on it. However, because of the Earth’s rotation, there is a second force called the Coriolis force that affects the direction of wind flow.
7.3.2 Coriolis Force. A moving mass travels in a straight line until acted on by some outside force. However, if one views the moving mass from a rotating platform, the path of the moving mass relative to his platform appears to be deflected or curved. To illustrate, consider a turntable. If one used a pencil and a ruler to draw a straight line from the center to the outer edge of the turntable, the pencil will have traveled in a straight line.
However, stopping the turntable, it is evident that the line spirals outward from the center (see Figure 7-3). To a viewer on the turntable, some apparent force deflected the pencil to the right.
Figure 7-3. Illustration of Coriolis Force
7-3 A similar apparent force deflects moving particles on the Earth. Because the Earth is spherical, the deflective force is much more complex than the simple turntable example. Although the force is termed apparent to us on Earth, it is very real.
The principle was first explained by the Frenchman Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis, and now carries his name—the Coriolis force.
Coriolis force affects all moving objects. The force deflects air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Coriolis force is at a right angle to wind direction and directly proportional to wind speed; that is, as wind speed increases, Coriolis force increases. At a given latitude, double the wind speed and you double the Coriolis force. Why at a given latitude?
Coriolis force varies with latitude from zero at the Equator to a maximum at the poles.
It influences wind direction everywhere except immediately at the Equator, but the effects are more pronounced in middle and high latitudes.
Figure 7-4. Coriolis Force Variations Across the Earth
Coriolis force deflects moving objects to the right of their path in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left of their path in the Southern Hemisphere. Coriolis deflection is maximized at the poles and zero at the Equator.
7-4 Figure 7-5. Coriolis Force Magnitude Variations with Wind Speed
Coriolis force magnitude is directly proportional to wind speed. Wind speed is twice as strong in the right panel;
thus, the Coriolis force is doubled.
7.3.3 Friction Force. Friction between the wind and the terrain surface slows the wind.
The rougher the terrain, the greater the frictional effect. Also, the stronger the wind speed, the greater the friction. One may not think of friction as a force, but it is a very real and effective force always acting opposite to wind direction.
Figure 7-6. Friction Force Magnitude Variations with Terrain Roughness
Friction force magnitude is directly proportional to terrain roughness. Even though the wind speed is the same in both panels, the terrain is rougher in the right panel; thus, the friction force is stronger.
Figure 7-7. Friction Force Magnitude Variations with Wind Speed
Friction force magnitude is directly proportional to wind speed. Wind speed is twice as strong in the right panel;
thus, the friction force is doubled.
The frictional drag of the ground normally decreases with height and becomes insignificant above the lowest few thousand feet. However, this may vary somewhat since both strong winds and rough terrain extend the friction layer to higher altitudes.
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7.4 Upper Air Wind. In the atmosphere above the friction layer (lowest few thousand feet), only PGF and Coriolis force affect the horizontal motion of air. Remember that the PGF drives the wind and is oriented perpendicular to height contours. When a PGF is first established, wind begins to blow from higher to lower heights directly across the contours. However, the instant air begins moving, Coriolis force deflects it to the right.
Soon the wind is deflected a full 90° and is parallel to the contours. At this time, Coriolis force exactly balances PGF, as shown in Figure 7-8. With the forces in balance, wind will remain parallel to contours. This is called the geostrophic wind.
Figure 7-8. Geostrophic Wind
Figure 7-9. Upper Air Wind Flow
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7.5 Surface Wind. At the surface of the Earth, all three forces come into play. As frictional force slows the wind speed, Coriolis force decreases. However, friction does not affect PGF. PGF and Coriolis force are no longer in balance. The stronger PGF turns the wind at an angle across the isobars toward lower pressure until the three forces balance, as shown in Figure 7-10.
Figure 7-10. Surface Wind Forces
The angle of surface wind to isobars is about 10° over water, increasing to as high as 45° over rugged terrain. The end result is, in the Northern Hemisphere, the surface wind spirals clockwise and outward from high pressure, and counterclockwise and inward into low pressure (see Figure 7-11). In mountainous regions, one often has difficulty relating surface wind to pressure gradient because of immense friction, and also because of local terrain effects on pressure.
Figure 7-11. Surface Wind Flow
8-1 CHAPTER 8. GLOBAL CIRCULATIONS AND JET STREAMS
8.1 Non-Rotating Earth Circulation System. Global circulations explain how air and storm systems travel over the Earth’s surface. The global circulation would be simple (and the weather boring) if the Earth did not rotate, the rotation was not tilted relative to the sun, and had no water.
Without those factors, the ground and atmosphere directly beneath the sun would be subject to more of the sun’s heat than anywhere else on the planet. The result would be the Equator becoming very hot, with the hot air rising into the upper atmosphere.
That hot air would then move toward the poles, where it would become very cold and sink, returning to the Equator (see Figure 8-1). One large area of high pressure would be at each of the poles, with a large belt of low pressure around the Equator.
Figure 8-1. Non-Rotating, Non-Tilted, Waterless, Earth Circulation System
8.2 Rotating Earth Circulation System. However, since the Earth rotates, the axis is tilted, and there is more land mass in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere, the actual global pattern is much more complicated.
Instead of one large circulation between the poles and the Equator, there are three circulations (see Figure 8-2):
• Hadley cell—Low-latitude air movement toward the Equator that, with heating, rises vertically with poleward movement in the upper atmosphere. This forms a convection cell that dominates tropical and subtropical climates.
• Ferrel cell—A mid-latitude mean atmospheric circulation cell for weather named by William Ferrel in the 19th century. In this cell, the air flows poleward and eastward near the surface, and equatorward and westward at higher levels.