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1. The roles and duties of the PF and PM.
2. How to achieve effective flightpath monitoring.
3. Managing attention.
4. Intervention.
5. Conducting reasonableness checks.
6. Barriers to effective monitoring.
7. Common errors and mitigations in monitoring.
Note: Each of these topics is discussed more below.
5.3.1 R oles and Duties of PF and PM. Pilots should be trained on the duties of both roles as documented in the policies and procedures. Pilots should be trained to recognize when the PF is not adequately controlling the flightpath or when the PM is not adequately monitoring the flightpath. This training should include pilot task loading and signs of diminished performance. Some examples include lack of communication, channelized attention, and failure to make required callouts.
5.3.2 Effective Flightp ath Monitoring. Pilots should be trained to recognize when the airplane is not conforming to the planned flightpath and on strategies for appropriate intervention (see paragraph 5.3.4). They should be trained that there are predictable situations during each flight when the risk of a flightpath deviation is increased, heightening the importance of proper task/workload management.
5.3.2.1 T raining should also include recognition of and signs of diminished crewmember performance on the part of the PF or PM (e.g., lack of communication, channelized attention, failure to make required callouts, etc.).
Training should include monitoring-related CRM, TEM, and human performance vulnerabilities related to monitoring, the importance of monitoring, and the operator-approved practices that achieve effective monitoring of the flightpath.
5.3.2.2 Training should ensure that pilots have a thorough understanding of the knowledge and skills to apply the combinations of flight guidance and flight control automation (e.g., given a certain set of circumstances, what will happen next?). Training should also ensure pilots are proficient and can transition seamlessly between combinations/levels of flight guidance/flight control automated systems (including manual flight) during line operations.
Training should be enhanced to teach pilots to interpret the FMA and other FPM systems relative to aircraft state and to know what to expect based on programming, configuration, and aircraft state. Training should explicitly address the management of deviations or off-path operations and include strategies for managing “automation surprises” and unknown situations.
5.3.3 M anaging A ttention. Pilots should be trained to effectively maintain vigilance of the flightpath. Training should include specific strategies for managing attention to support
5-5 flightpath monitoring and where and when to focus attention, and reinforce prioritization of flightpath. The quantity and type of information available to the flightcrew has changed substantially over the last decades. This trend is expected to continue as new technologies and products are introduced into the flight deck to enable new kinds of operations. Training should include methods to recognize the flight phases or situations when they are most vulnerable to flightpath deviations (including when little time exists to correct deviations) so flightcrews may strategically plan workload and manage distractions to maximize attention to flightpath during those phases.
5.3.3.1 Pilots should be trained how to monitor for the specific purpose of protecting the flightpath while they are engaged in concurrent tasks. They should be trained how to prioritize tasks and switch between tasks so that they do not neglect monitoring of the flightpath during potentially vulnerable states
(e.g., low altitude lateral or vertical changes). Training should include information and task management strategies that enable pilots to use charts, EFBs, the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS), etc., while also effectively monitoring the trajectory and airplane energy state.
5.3.3.2 Pilots should be trained on managing distractions to ensure the flightpath remains the primary focus of flightcrew attention. In the flight deck there are multiple competing demands for pilot attention.
5.3.4 Intervention. Pilots should be trained on progressive intervention strategies and how to apply them when they are in the role of PM, as documented in the operator’s policy and procedures. A progressive intervention strategy is initiated by communicating a flightpath deviation (alert), then suggesting a course of action (advocacy and assertion), and then directly intervening, if necessary, by taking the controls to prevent an incident or accident. If the PF does not correct the flightpath deviation in a timely manner, the PM should intervene based on operator policy and procedures. A pilot taking control should announce the transfer of control. For example:
• PM calls “One dot high;” PF calls “correcting” and returns to glidepath in a timely manner.
• PF does not respond to two successive challenges; then, per operator’s procedure, the PM announces, “I have control, going around,” and initiates a go-around as PF.
5.3.4.1 When a flightpath problem is identified, the PF should know appropriate ways of correcting it by taking action with the flightpath guidance or control equipment. For example:
1. PF notes speed increasing on a path descent and deploys the speedbrakes.
2. After a change to the FMS, the PF expected a level turn to the right at constant speed. Instead, the aircraft begins to roll into a left turn, the power begins to increase, and the aircraft starts to pitch up. The PF
5-6 immediately disengages the AP and AT and manually returns the aircraft to the desired flightpath and energy.
3. PF notes aircraft descending slightly below glidepath and speed decreasing, but the wind-shear warnings immediately annunciate and the flight guidance automation switches to wind-shear escape commands. The PF decides not to interfere with the equipment.
4. PF notes aircraft vertical navigation (VNAV) is not functioning as expected to maintain the intended flightpath. The pilot reverts to another mode, such as vertical speed, to maintain the intended flightpath using autoflight functions.
5.3.4.2 The intervention strategies may also include the PM taking control of the aircraft if the PF is not responding correctly in time to address the flightpath problem. Training should provide effective means of taking over the PF role if it is determined that the PF is not correcting a flightpath issue in a timely manner. This should include strategies for managing the communications and methods of intervention that are appropriate for the situation (e.g., PF is becoming incapacitated vs. PF missed an important flightpath cue). Training should include communication strategies for what to say, how to say it, and when to speak up, etc. Training should also include methods for judging whether intervention is needed and deciding on an appropriate course of action (e.g., the severity of the situation, acceptable time allowed before intervention, etc.).
5.3.5 C onducting Reasonableness Checks. Pilots should be trained in how and when to do reasonableness checking. This should include training on how to detect and address potentially conflicting, ambiguous, inapplicable, or erroneous automated system inputs/outputs. These should integrate with existing procedures and training to provide guidance on the conduct of reasonableness checks of information inputs and outputs during the FPM planning activity for each phase of flight (e.g., predeparture, pre-descent, pre-approach). Operators should train pilots to conduct reasonableness checks that include how and when to perform such checks. Reasonableness checks should be conducted for automated system inputs/outputs the pilot uses in the FPM planning activity for an upcoming phase of flight.
5.3.5.1 R easonableness checks of automated system inputs/outputs should be easy to perform and enable pilots to reliably detect gross errors and validate operational applicability of inputs/outputs (e.g., “Does the information make sense?”). Operators should define when to perform a reasonableness check and should ensure that reasonableness checking does not conflict with the performance of their existing operational procedures.
5.3.5.2 An appropriate reasonableness check methodology should enable pilots to: 23
23 ACT ARC Recommendation 18-1, Reasonableness Checks of Information Automation Systems.
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1. Detect and address potentially inaccurate/inapplicable system inputs/outputs before using the information in a way that impacts the flightpath.
a. The appropriate means to detect inaccurate/inapplicable system inputs/outputs could include development and training of standard “rules of thumb” or “ballpark” figures so that crews have sufficient baseline knowledge of what a “reasonable” input or output should look like, permitting the crew to detect and investigate system inputs/outputs that are outside the boundaries of “reasonable.”
b. The appropriate means to address the inaccurate/inapplicable input/output and maintain the integrity of the flightpath will vary based on operational context. For example, if time is unlimited
(e.g., reviewing performance numbers at the gate), a discrepancy might be addressed by seeking additional information from multiple sources to cross-check the inputs/outputs. If time is limited
(e.g., reviewing descent calculations approaching Top of Descent (TOD)), a discrepancy might be addressed by reverting to a simpler, more conservative choice.
2. Maintain flightpath as the primary focus so that resolving inaccuracy or inapplicability of system inputs/outputs does not distract from the primary task of FPM.
5.3.5.3 Operators can identify how, how many, and when to conduct reasonableness checks based on their own equipment and operating environment, and through their operational feedback, training feedback, and SMS programs. This should include safety data programs such as LOSA, ASAP, and FOQA, as well as industry programs (e.g., manufacturer–operator meetings, accident reports, the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS), and the Aviation Safety Information Analysis and Sharing (ASIAS) Program).
5.3.6 Barriers to Effective Flightpath Monitoring. Pilots should be trained and evaluated on recognizing barriers to effective flightpath monitoring and indications of inadequate flightpath monitoring. Conditions that may lead to inadequate flightpath monitoring may include high task loading, insufficient attention management, or distractions. For example, during times of high task loading, pilots may focus on individual tasks or channelize their attention, which may lead to diminished communication between the crewmembers. Training should include strategies to respond to these risks and identify the resources to be used during high workload on the flight deck.
5.3.6.1 Although communications and assertiveness skills have been mentioned, there are a variety of other “nontechnical” skills generally contained in the best CRM and TEM training programs, such as teamwork, time and task management, etc., that are also very valuable in support of a pilot’s ability to monitor and intervene effectively if needed.
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5.3.7 Common Errors and Mitigations in Monitoring. Pilots should be trained on common errors in monitoring the flightpath, and potential mitigations for those errors. This includes training on appropriate methods of recognizing precursors to, and signs of, degraded monitoring and on resolving monitoring errors and/or lapses.
5.4 Instructor/Evaluator (I/E) Considerations. I/Es should have a thorough understanding of FPM, their associated systems, and their operational use; the roles of PF and PM; and the relevant operator policies and procedures to effectively train and evaluate pilots. I/Es should be taught how to properly teach and evaluate monitoring. I/Es should also be knowledgeable about managing attention, so they can effectively train pilots on the potential for distractions on the flight deck that lead to ineffective monitoring and improper FPM. I/Es should assess the pilot’s monitoring skills and role as PM where applicable.
6-1 CHAPTER 6. ENERGY MANAGEMENT
6.1 General. Energy management is defined as the planning and control of airspeed (or groundspeed), altitude, thrust, aerodynamic drag (speedbrakes, slats/flaps, and gear), and trajectory to achieve desired lateral and vertical flightpath targets appropriate for the operational objectives. Energy state is the combination of kinetic and potential energy of the aircraft, which means the combination of speed (kinetic energy), altitude (gravitational potential energy), and thrust (chemical potential energy) available. During maneuvering, these three types of energy can be traded, or exchanged, sometimes at the cost of additional drag.
6.1.1 Industry reports and operational data from airlines and aircraft manufacturers indicate that pilots have vulnerabilities in awareness and management of the aircraft’s energy state, across multiple phases of flight, which is potentially a significant contributing factor in flightpath deviations, incidents, and accidents. These data reveal challenges at times in complying with arrival and departure procedures, approach and landing operations, and during go-arounds. Increased precision is required on new and planned future airspace procedures (e.g., Performance-Based Navigation (PBN), area navigation (RNAV), Required Navigation Performance (RNP), Trajectory Based Operations (TBO), Radius-to-Fix (RF) legs). Therefore, pilot understanding of and proficiency for energy management during such operations are critical.
6.1.2 For example, the pilot needs to understand how to manage the vertical flightpath and aircraft energy during the arrival and approach phases; how the pilot does that will vary based on the type of approach flown (e.g., RNAV Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) to an ILS approach or to a visual approach) and ATC interventions. Pilots need to be able to plan the tasks related to the desired aircraft energy state for the arrival and approach, in a timely manner. If the approach clearance or aircraft energy changes, the pilot needs to have the knowledge and skills to recognize actual or pending energy state changes to decide what actions need to be made to manage the flightpath and aircraft energy accurately and efficiently.
6.1.3 This chapter provides guidance on recommended operational policy, procedures, and considerations for energy management to support effective FPM. Operators should refer to their own data from SMSs and from industry reports to determine additional areas of emphasis. Section 121.423, AC 120-111, and AC 120-109 address knowledge and skill elements and training requirements for energy management as it pertains to upset prevention and recovery, including stalls, high altitude flight, and flight at minimum controllable airspeed. Thus, the material in this AC supplements but does not cover that material.
6.2 Operational Policy and Procedure Considerations for Energy Management. An operator’s policy and procedures should address the roles and responsibilities for the PF, PM, and other flightcrew members related to the integration of managing energy and flightpath, in all phases of flight. Energy management is the responsibility of the PF who should take into account the aircraft’s inertia, limitations, and crew ability in the prevailing environmental conditions and aircraft state. Pilots should continuously monitor
6-2 and evaluate the energy state of the aircraft (high/low/fast/slow) so that they are able to assess when changes to the energy state are needed, occur, or are projected to occur. The trading of energy should be accomplished, though, with a view toward capturing and maintaining the final desired energy state. Pilots should be able to maintain the flightpath and desired energy state in any combination of manual and automated flight modes.
6.2.1 Operational policy and procedures should consider the following questions related to energy management:
• Is the aircraft high or low and is the speed fast or slow in comparison to the desired vertical flightpath and speed at the moment?
• Will the aircraft be on the desired vertical flightpath and at the desired speed target at various points in the future?
• What needs to be done to adjust the vertical flightpath or speed if it’s not correct at the moment, or not on track to reach a future target?
• Is the aircraft within its operational envelopes and will the aircraft remain within operational limitations?
6.3 Training Considerations.
6.3.1 Knowledge and Skills. Energy management involves the following pilot knowledge and skills:24
1. Pilots should be able to determine where the aircraft is in time and space, in terms of both physical position and energy state, in relation to the desired vertical profile and speed targets (i.e., is the aircraft is too high or low, fast or slow).
2. Pilots should be able to predict where the aircraft will be in the future, in terms of both position and energy state, in relation to the desired future vertical profile and speed targets.
3. Pilots should be able to make the proper flight control inputs (whether through manual control or through automated systems) required to adjust the flightpath and energy state to achieve the desired current and future profile and speed targets.
6.3.1.1 Knowledge and skills can be developed through training on how to:
1. Determine the aircraft energy state,
2. Understand how all available flight controls (primary and secondary, manual and automatic) can be used to affect the aircraft energy state, and
3. Create action plans to meet the desired aircraft energy state targets specific to the operational requirements.
24 ACT ARC Recommendation 19-4, Energy Management, Attachment C, Energy Management Training Objectives and Training Scenarios.
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6.3.1.2 As a foundation for energy management, pilots should reinforce their basic skills and knowledge related to flying manually (as discussed in Chapter 3) and to flying with automated systems. Operator training should address energy management during normal situations, as well as during unexpected, abnormal, or emergency situations.
6.3.2 T raining Topics. In designing training programs (initial, transition, upgrade, and recurrent), operators should develop specific learning objectives with associated training methodologies that address energy management knowledge and skills. Examples of topics to consider include:
1. Energy management considerations for each phase of flight, including energy-related threats and mitigations against those threats.
2. Methods to determine whether vertical path and speed constraints (published or ATC-directed) can be met.
3. How to use lift and drag devices to manage energy.
4. Techniques for flying high energy approaches (e.g., where pilots have to descend quickly for an approach and landing at an airport with terrain or other restrictions, such as Eagle County Regional Airport (EGE) or San Francisco International Airport (SFO)).
5. Common errors in energy management, operational traps, and potential threats that could lead to errors, such as:
• Late changes in assigned routing, clearance limit, altitude assignment, or arrival procedure.
• Loss of FMS lateral or vertical profile requiring intervention to correct path or route.
• Untimely speed assignment changes, traffic avoidance altitude constraints, and other unexpected ATC restrictions.
• Current forecast and unexpected weather conditions (winds, icing, high density altitude, etc.) that affect aircraft performance and energy state.
6.3.3 Training Scenarios. Recommended training scenarios include the following, but should address the operator’s specific circumstances (e.g., pilot demographics and operational environment) and common error trends as identified through operator/industry data and safety programs. The recommended scenarios may be incorporated as part of the MBT required by extended envelope training, in a LOFT scenario, or other SBT and integrated with the MFO training recommendations earlier in this AC.
1. Takeoffs and go-arounds at light weight with low altitude level off.
2. Departure procedures (DP) with one or more climb restrictions, where environmental conditions and/or aircraft performance may create a challenge.
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3. High altitude, performance-limited situations, to include:
a. Flight at or near maximum altitude for the weight and conditions.
b. Temperature changes at high altitude. Specifically, flight from colder to warmer air that may result in a reduction of available thrust.
c. High density altitude takeoff, climb, approach, and landing.
4. Aircraft-specific deceleration and descent capabilities, to include:
a. Aircraft-specific energy management capabilities, challenges, and common errors.
Examples may include descent range at idle at best glidespeed and in contrast with other configurations, and speeds with varying wind/groundspeed.
b. Appropriate use of speedbrakes/flaps/gear.
5. Descent restrictions, which may include procedures determined to be complex or challenging, to include:
a. Off-route ATC vectors and descent restrictions that take the aircraft off the expected and engaged lateral and vertical profiles with subsequent ATC instructions to resume the previous route and profile.
b. Late ATC instructions.
6. Visual approaches, including:
a. Scenarios commenced from both “high and fast” and “low and slow” initial conditions, to include:
• Identifying general conditions where recovery to a stable approach may not be possible and a go-around is necessary.
• Identifying what combination of drag, thrust, and pitch is appropriate to your aircraft type.
b. Scenarios where ATC does not vector the aircraft to final.
c. Scenarios when groundspeed is significantly different from indicated airspeed, but when environmental conditions permit landing.
d. Approaches where ATC does not assign speed.
e. Approaches with a runway change.
f. Landing heavy weight on a short/contaminated or performance-limited runway, including planning for turnoff after landing.
g. Energy management during maximum performance escape maneuvers (e.g., wind shear, Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) or enhanced ground proximity warning system (EGPWS) responses).
6.4 Instructor/Evaluator (I/E) Considerations. In addition to understanding energy management and being able to apply it to FPM, I/E should be trained on specific techniques and maneuvers to effectively demonstrate, train, and evaluate energy management principles.
Appendix A A-1 APPENDIX A. CONSIDERATIONS FOR AUTOFLIGHT MODE AWARENESS
PROCEDURES A.1 When formulating mode awareness SOPs, consider the following:
A.1.1 Mode awareness is critical to controlling the aircraft and callouts are an effective method to make crews aware of the controlling mode if done with an understanding of the mode and its effect on FPM.
A.1.2 Some operational experience has shown that calling out all mode changes works well until workload increases, then the verbal callouts are sometimes shed. Some operators have implemented a combined scheme in which normal mode changes are not verbalized but verbally called out when the change is not anticipated (not previously briefed and expected) or when normal (and expected) but during a critical phase of flight. A missed approach/go-around would be an example when expected mode changes would be verbally called out to ensure proper guidance and control during a critical phase of flight.
A.1.3 Some mode changes may not need to be addressed (verbal or nonverbal) if briefed as part of the normal operation and the transitions occur as expected. Alternatively, there may be operations when verbal callouts are mandated even for expected mode changes to ensure specific actions are completed or risks mitigated.
A.1.4 It is important to brief current mode status to any pilot that is occupying a pilot seat after a physiological break or distraction from flying (communicating with dispatch, flight attendant (F/A), etc.). Following a distraction, verbally discuss flight deck status. For a pilot that is occupying a pilot seat after a break, develop a briefing that is appropriate for the equipment with required items to ensure the pilot is updated on systems status and current/future aircraft state, desired aircraft trajectory, and energy state.
A.2 A well-defined and standard communication methodology may increase mode awareness and enhance FPM. One recommended approach is to create phase of flight procedures/dialog boxes (e.g., takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, approach) that include mode changes and indications for each combination of automation allowed. Include mode change indication in maneuver procedures/dialog boxes. When possible, associate callout names and timing to match mode changes. Dialog boxes are one way to provide guidance and SOPs to flightcrews on individual pilot responsibilities or actions during each flight phase.
A.3 Incorporate a communication/confirmation methodology that works for the equipment and/or within the company culture. For example, some operators have implemented company standard procedures such as “Confirm, Activate, Monitor, Intervene (CAMI)” or “Verbalize, Verify, and Monitor (VVM),” similar systems, or even variations thereof.
Such procedures provide the flightcrew with a structured method to conduct operations within the flight deck that help to “trap” errors. Each scheme is considered an element of an effective TEM strategy. For example, the explanatory version of CAMI for an FMS data input is “confirm all FMS inputs with the other pilot when airborne, then activate the input, then monitor mode annunciations and indications to ensure the
Appendix A A-2 autoflight/autothrust system performs as desired, but then intervene if the operation did not go as planned.”
A.4 Regardless of the form of the strategy, the objective is to ensure that all pilots in the flight deck understand the active mode and the effects of the newly engaged mode, and skillfully react to ensure the aircraft trajectory and energy remains as desired.
A.5 The mode confirmation methodology should be defined in relation to PF/PM roles and areas of vulnerability, specifically when the level of vulnerability may lead to a flightpath deviation. The Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) document describes an “Area of Vulnerability” as an operation which may occur during a phase of flight in which “either the potentially increased likelihood of a flightpath deviation or the increased severity of potential consequences if such a deviation occurs.” 25 Additionally, certain situations, such as malfunctions, drive an increase in workload which may increase the flightcrew’s susceptibility to monitoring errors.
A.6 Identification of high, medium, and low areas of vulnerability conditions would be defined by the operator using the FSF Practical Guide for Improving Flight Path Monitoring as a guide (see Appendix B, Related 14 CFR Parts, Reading Material, and Definitions, paragraph B.2.3). It is important that an operator’s procedures for mode confirmation take into account differences in areas of vulnerability and/or high-workload situations.
25 FSF’s A Practical Guide for Improving Flight Path Monitoring: Final Report of the Active Pilot Monitoring W orking Group .
Appendix B B-1 APPENDIX B. RELATED 14 CFR PARTS, READING MATERIAL, AND
DEFINITIONS B.1 Related 14 CFR Parts. Each of the following 14 CFR parts can be found at https://www.ecfr.gov:
• Part 1.
• Part 60.
• Part 61, § 61.64.
• Part 91 subpart K (part 91K), § 91.1073.
• Part 121, §§ 121.401, 121.409, 121.415, 121.419 through 121.427, 121.440, 121.441, and 121.544; and ap pendices E and F.
• Part 125.
• Part 135, §§ 135.293, 135.297, 135.299, 135.323, 135.329, 135.335, and 135.619.
• Part 142, §§ 142.54 and 142.59.
B.2 Related Reading Material. The current editions of the following documents support the knowledge and skill standards and recommended practices for pilot training and checking.
B.2.1 ACs. T he current editions of each of the following ACs can be found at https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars and DRS:
• AC 60-28, FAA English Language Standard for an FAA Certificate Issued Under 14 CFR Parts 61, 63, 65, and 107.
• AC 120-35, Flightcrew Member Line-Op erational Simulations: Line-Oriented Flight Training, Special Purpose Operational Training, Line Operational Evaluation.
• AC 120-50, Guidelines for Operational Approval of Windshear Training Programs.
• AC 120-51, Crew Resource Management Training.
• AC 120-53, Guidance for Conducting and Use of Flight Standardization Board Evaluations.
• AC 120-54, Advanced Qualification Program.
• AC 120-55, Air Carrier Operational Approval and Use of TCAS II.
• AC 120-71, Standard Operatin g Procedures and Pilot Monitoring Duties for Flight Deck Crewmembers.
• AC 120-74, Parts 91, 121, 125, and 135 Flightcrew Procedures During Taxi Operations.
• AC 120-88, Preventing Injuries Caused by Turbulence.
• AC 120-109, Stall Prevention and Recovery Training.