2-2 proficient in the use of all such methods and systems, and in the selection of the proper systems and their modes at the appropriate time, for various FPM tasks based on the situation.
2.1.6 Monitoring is an important aspect of ensuring the flightpath; therefore, Chapter 5 should be considered to be an integral aspect of FPM and not a standalone topic. Other tasks on the flight deck may provide distractions that require the pilots to actively manage attention and prioritize tasks. Therefore, the task/attention/distraction material in Chapter 5 is an integral part of the topic of FPM.
2.2 O perational Policy and Procedure Considerations. An underlying premise for this guidance material is that flight operations and pilot training should be consistent.
Therefore, the policy and procedures for FPM should be clearly documented in the relevant manuals and reflected in the pilot training.
2.2.1 Operational policy and procedures for FPM should be based on guiding principles that state the general philosophy or overarching concepts and expectations for FPM. These principles should then be used to guide the development of appropriate policies and procedures that affect FPM for normal, rare normal, and non-normal operations. An appropriate set of guiding principles for FPM should include at least the following:
1. FPM is always:
• The responsibility of the entire flightcrew, and
• The highest priority for all members of the flightcrew.
2. Each pilot is responsible for:
• Being fully aware of the current and desired flightpath of the aircraft, and
• Being fully capable of manually flying the aircraft to achieve the desired flightpath.
2.2.2 All operational policies and procedures regarding or affecting FPM should be written to support the set of guiding principles. Operators should implement specific standard operating procedures (SOP) to support the FPM policy.
2.2.3 FPM policies and procedures should clearly define the roles and responsibilities of all flightcrew members, including the roles and responsibilities of the PF, PM, Captain, First Officer (F/O), and any other required flight deck crew positions. FPM policies and procedures should protect the PF’s ability to maintain focus on FPM. Any non-FPM tasks4 (e.g., communication with the company) should be performed by other members of the flightcrew (e.g., the PM) to the maximum extent possible.
2.2.4 Items that should be addressed in an operator’s FPM guiding principles, policy, and procedures are listed below:
4 A non-FPM task is any task that is not directly related to managing the flightpath at that time.
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2.2.4.1 Each operator should have a clearly stated, comprehensive FPM policy supported by the FPM guiding principles and by SOPs. The guiding principles provide an overarching structure from which FPM policies and procedures should be developed. The guiding principles state the general concepts and expectations of FPM. Subsequently, the policies state how the principles are to be achieved.
2.2.4.2 The policy should highlight and stress that the responsibility for FPM remains with the pilots at all times. Procedures developed from this policy should include actions designed to mitigate or reduce hazards or risks that may influence FPM.
2.2.4.3 The operator policy should identify appropriate opportunities for MFO in line operations to maintain proficiency.
2.2.4.4 Policies and procedures should include:
2.2.4.4.1 Guidance for the appropriate use of automated systems, recognizing that they provide a set of tools (but are not the only available tools) to effectively manage the flightpath. Operators should provide guidance on the use of all these tools (e.g., automated systems and manual flight). That guidance should provide detailed information on the operational application and utility of the respective system(s) and consideration for combinations to best address the situation. The guidance should be specific to the aircraft type, operational environment, and operator culture. It should include use of MFO and use of automated systems with a focus on FPM rather than simply focusing on the manipulation of automated systems, because policies that deal only with automation use can misplace the responsibility of FPM onto the automation system, whereas it should remain with the pilots at all times.
2.2.4.4.2 Guidance for proper monitoring of the flightpath and allocation of tasks between PF and PM to include:
• Monitoring the flightpath during all combinations of manual and/or automated flight.
• Task allocation, workload, and system management strategies, as well as methods to address malfunctions, including malfunctions for which there is no specific procedure.
2.2.4.5 The policy and procedures should be customized for the specific operator and regularly reviewed and modified as necessary through a formal process.
Policies and procedures should consider manufacturer recommendations and be adapted/modified according to factors including, but not limited to, the following:
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• The operating environment,
• The equipment being operated,
• The demographic characteristics of the pilot group,
• Operational and safety data, and
• The operator’s overall policies and organizational culture.
2.2.4.6 The policies and procedures should be validated for operational effectiveness, and should take into account lessons learned from a regular review of feedback from training, line experience, and operational and safety data.
2.2.4.7 Policies and procedures should use consistent terminology for FPM systems and information automation (IA) systems. “Guidance,” “control,” and other terms that form the foundation of the operator’s FPM policy should be clearly defined.
2.3 Training Considerations. Each operator’s training program should clearly and explicitly convey the FPM guiding principles, policies, and procedures described above. All aspects of training should clearly instill an understanding that FPM is primary at all times.
Training on individual procedures or operation of individual items of flight deck equipment, under both normal and non-normal conditions, should be conveyed to ensure the trainee understands how the topic fits within the overarching context of FPM.
2.3.1 For example, operators create procedures for the execution of most maneuvers, such as a takeoff or an instrument landing system (ILS) approach, which contain highly scripted actions and callouts. Training for these maneuvers should ensure that pilots are not taught to focus on the procedural details at the expense of the “big picture,” which is that FPM is the highest priority aspect of every maneuver. Standardized procedures are important, but procedures should be taught in such a way that the overall context of FPM is clearly conveyed to the trainee. Similarly, training on the use of various items of flight deck equipment (e.g., FMS and Electronic Flight Bag (EFB)) should emphasize that pilots are taught to understand its appropriate use in the context of FPM. Some examples are discussed in Chapter 4.
2.3.2 Training programs should also prioritize FPM in terms of emphasis and proportion of time spent.
2.4 Instructor/Evaluator (I/E) Considerations. It is important that each operator consider not just the curricula content, but the content delivery emphasis as conveyed by their I/Es.
The I/E staff should maintain focus on FPM priority throughout all aspects of training and checking.
2.4.1 All I/Es should have appropriate I/E qualification and experience, the knowledge and skills required for effective aircraft FPM, and the knowledge and skills to instruct, assess, and evaluate the learning objectives and proficiency for FPM and the interrelated aspects of FPM.
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2.4.2 A training program for I/Es should include at least the following:
• Operator’s FPM policy.
• Operator’s SOPs related to FPM.
• Understanding how to train and assess FPM.
• Understanding how to train and assess management of automated systems.
• Understanding how to train and assess effective monitoring, including scan techniques.
• Understanding how to train and assess energy management.
• Understanding how to train and assess Crew Resource Management (CRM) and Threat and Error Management (TEM) aspects related to FPM.
• Developing and implementing training scenarios for training and assessing FPM (where applicable to the role of the I/E).
• Effective briefing and debriefing methods and tools, including facilitated debriefs.
• Evaluating the performance of the PF and PM.
Note: Additional guidance on instructor qualifications and training related to FPM aspects of stall prevention and recovery training and upset prevention and recovery training can be found in AC 120-109, Stall Prevention and Recovery Training, and AC 120-111, Upset Prevention and Recovery Training, respectively.
2.4.3 I n each of the remaining chapters of this AC, additional training and I/E considerations are included that relate to each chapter’s focus.
3-1 CHAPTER 3. MANUAL FLIGHT OPERATIONS
3.1 General. MFO are those operations where the pilot is performing FPM while physically controlling pitch, roll, yaw, and/or thrust.5 Manual flight is the foundation upon which other technical flying skills are built. MFO apply to a broad range of situations, including situations where some automated systems are engaged or operating. Manual flight knowledge and skills are required in all situations, not only when all automated systems are off.
3.1.1 MFO Uses. There are different combinations of aircraft systems that can be used to manage the flightpath, each of them having different requirements, specific knowledge, tasks, and skills for manual flight. In addition to MFO during routine normal operations, MFO includes maneuvers required to be manually flown and the requirement for intervening or taking over FPM tasks from one or more of the automated systems. MFO includes FPM using raw data, which may require performing cognitive tasks without the assistance of onboard systems, such as the FD, moving map display, or flight management system (FMS).
3.1.2 S kills Related to Performing MFO . Skills related to performing MFO include cognitive skills, psychomotor skills, and communication skills. Pilot proficiency for performing all MFO skills provides a foundation for pilots to handle any operational situation, whether expected or unexpected.
3.1.2.1 Cognitive Skills. A cognitive skill is the ability to retain and combine a variety of knowledge components about a domain and apply them to perform complex mental tasks, including problem solving, decision making, situation assessment, system monitoring, and conducting calculations and visualization for spatial flightpath planning.
3.1.2.2 Psychomotor Skills. A psychomotor skill is the ability to perform physical actions. Examples of psychomotor skills include use of the yoke or side stick, use of the thrust levers, programming the flight computer, and adjusting any system controls.
3.1.2.3 Communication Skills. A communication skill is the ability to perform a meaningful interchange with another person using some form of language or other set of signals. Examples of communication skills include conducting briefings and callouts, obtaining and responding to clearances from air traffic control (ATC), and updating dispatch on a reroute decision.
3.1.2.4 Example. An example of using all three types of skills is while descending and turning to join a Localizer (LOC) at the proper glidepath under manual control. The pilot has to mentally integrate airspeed, altitude, roll, and pitch attitude with LOC displacement and rate of capture to manually accomplish this task efficiently while analyzing the situation and
5 “Physically controlling” may refer to physical manipulation of the corresponding flight deck control, such as side stick or control yoke.
3-2 communicating/coordinating with the other pilot(s) and ATC. It requires an integrated application of cognitive, psychomotor, and communications skills.
3.1.3 MFO Proficiency. Operational data have shown that, on average, pilots exercise manual flight control for only a small portion of total flight time (usually only during takeoff and landing). This somewhat limited operational practice in MFO may contribute to a gap between proficiency in MFO and the ability of pilots to perform manual operations when various situations require immediate manual control. Operators should promote and provide pilots with opportunities to exercise their knowledge and skills required for proficiency in MFO in training and during line operations.
3.1.4 MFO Skill Degradation. Analyses of operational, accident, and incident data show that degradation of pilot skills in MFO has been identified as a potential vulnerability to successful FPM. Therefore, policies that promote the development and maintenance of pilot skills for MFO remain important for the safety and effectiveness of air carrier operations.6 Proficiency in MFO skills is necessary for safe flight operations, regardless of the autoflight equipment installed, or used, in the aircraft.
3.2 Operator Policy and Procedure Considerations for MFO. Many aspects of operator policies and procedures can affect the readiness of pilots to perform MFO effectively. For example, operator policies on FPM that excessively require the use of automated systems may negatively affect the retention of MFO skills. Therefore, policy should not be overly prescriptive on requiring the use of automated systems at all times but instead encourage a culture that promotes joint responsibility of operator and individual pilots for maintaining pilot proficiency in MFO.
3.2.1 Maintaining MFO Proficiency in Operations and Training. Flight operations and training for MFO are interdependent. Therefore, operators should encourage an integrated approach by incorporating emphasis of pilots maintaining proficiency of their MFO knowledge and skills using both line operations and training (initial/upgrade, requalification, and recurrent). This includes emphasizing and exercising MFO during operational experience, and consolidation of training.
3.2.2 E xercising Manual Flying Skills and Knowledge. The operator policies should ensure there are appropriate opportunities for pilots to exercise manual flying skills during both training and line operations, such as during certain weather conditions and/or low workload periods. In addition, policies should ensure that pilots understand when to use the automated systems, including during conditions or airspace procedures that require use of AP for precise operations. The operator’s policy should address how to regain proficiency of MFO skills after pilots have short and long absences and include exercising skills for MFO during takeoffs, departures, arrivals, and landings.
3.2.2.1 An operator’s line operations policy should permit and encourage MFO and should incorporate the following:
6 Safety Alert for Operators (SAFO) 17007, Manual Flight Operations Proficiency.
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1. Encouragement to manually fly the aircraft including, at least periodically, the entire departure and arrival phases and potentially the entire flight.
2. When deciding whether to fly manually, crews should apply basic TEM7 principles and take into account the various factors affecting operational workload. Factors to consider include:
• Weather conditions, terrain, and/or other environmental threats.
• Time of day.
• Psychological and/or physiological factors.
• Level of crew experience.
• Traffic density.
• Condition of the aircraft, and/or any non-normal conditions.
• ATC and/or instrument procedural challenges.
• Any other operational threats.
3. Allow and encourage pilots to conduct manual flight with different combinations of automated systems and modes based on aircraft equipage and operational situations. Examples of different combinations of autoflight systems include the following:
• FD on, AP off, AT on.
• FD on, AP off, AT off.
• FD off, AP off, AT off.
• FD on, AP on, AT off.
• FD off, AP off, AT on.
4. A clear statement that the pilot in command (PIC) should use good judgment to consider the factors described above and to decide, on a case-by-case basis, when it is appropriate to conduct manual flying.
3.2.2.2 Operational policy guidance for manual flying during line operations should avoid:
1. Overly general statements, such as “shall never manually fly at night” or “shall always manually fly in day visual meteorological conditions (VMC).” The policy should allow the PIC to weigh all of the factors based on the situation and to apply good judgment.
2. Quotas for manual flying, unless based on validated scientific evidence
(e.g., “shall fly manually at least 10 hours/month”).
7 Or comparable operational risk management principles.
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3.2.2.3 Augmented crew operations may also limit the ability of some pilots to obtain practice and maintain proficiency in FPM skills during MFO. Operational and training policies should ensure that all pilots have appropriate opportunities to exercise knowledge and skills in MFO during operational line flying as well as in the simulator. Operators should ensure they have specific policies to address and provide opportunities for augmented crew pilots to gain hands-on MFO experience in a control seat managing the flightpath on a consistent basis to maintain proficiency in skills required for FPM.
3.2.3 Standard Operating Procedures (SOP). Operators should implement specific SOPs to support the MFO portion of their FPM policy. FPM policies and procedures should protect the PF’s ability to maintain focus on FPM.
3.2.3.1 FPM policies and procedures related to MFO should be validated for operational effectiveness from different data sources and should take into account lessons learned from a regular review of feedback/data sources from training, line experience, operational, and safety data. Operators should conduct a formal Safety Risk Assessment (SRA) of the threats identified by data analysis relating to FPM during MFO. This assessment will inform the operator of necessary changes to the policies and procedures in the operator’s manuals. Additional information can be found in AC 120-71, Standard Operating Procedures and Pilot Monitoring Duties for Flight Deck Crewmembers, Chapter 2, Determining When Procedures Need to be Designed or Modified.
3.2.3.2 Some examples of data sources that may be used for validation include:
• Testing and checking results.
• Periodic evaluations and analyses by those who have knowledge of the training program, its content, and its goals and purpose.
• Pilot surveys, instructor surveys, peer surveys, and training data.
• Critiques from managers, instructors, check pilots, and students regarding the training, testing, checking, or qualification process as it relates to FPM.
• Data from voluntary safety programs, such as the Aviation Safety Action Program (ASAP), Flight Operations Quality Assurance (FOQA), and Line Operations Safety Audit (LOSA).
• Other data from an operator’s Safety Management System (SMS).
3.3 Training and Checking Considerations. In designing their training programs (initial, transition, upgrade, and recurrent), operators should develop specific learning objectives with associated training methodologies that address knowledge and skills for MFO. MFO knowledge and skills should be emphasized throughout all flight training programs. An operator’s training policy should incorporate the following:
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1. All curricula should be designed in accordance with the philosophy that manual flight is the foundation upon which other technical flying skills are built. Therefore, the importance of manual flight should be emphasized throughout all flight training syllabi, while recognizing that MFO involve more than motor skills. Manual flight requires an integrated combination of cognitive, psychomotor, and communications skills.
2. All curricula should include training and proficiency assessment of MFO skills.
3.3.1 Unexpected Training and Checking Scenarios. Operators should consider that many exercises required to be hand flown are well-known and repetitive and may not measure the true underlying skill level outside of those specific exercises (e.g., single-engine, hand-flown approaches). Rather, operators should use safety system data and industry best practices to identify opportunities to present both expected and unexpected scenarios requiring manual flight that better measure and improve proficiency in FPM skills during MFO. For example, flying a hand-flown visual approach from 20 miles out without FDs, autothrust, and ATC guidance.
3.3.2 D evelopment and Maintenance of Knowledge and Skills. The importance of developing and maintaining MFO knowledge and skills should be emphasized throughout all flight-training segments. It is essential that knowledge and both cognitive and psychomotor skills for MFO are developed from the beginning of pilot training and practiced throughout a pilot’s career. Pilot knowledge and skills are not static. While pilots achieve initial skill development through training and practice over time, the variability encountered in line operations should allow pilots to continually gain experience, refine, and improve their knowledge and skills.
3.3.2.1 Fundamental skills are those skills that may be necessary across many tasks and can include cognitive, psychomotor, and communication skills.
Performing MFO requires foundational knowledge and skill proficiency in the following cognitive, psychomotor, and communication areas including, but not limited to, the following:
• Pitch and power basics.
• Energy management.
• High vs. low altitude aircraft performance.
• Aircraft type-specific factors with an impact on handling (e.g., effects of swept- vs. straight-wings, turbojet vs. turboprop vs. piston prop engines, underwing- vs. tail-mounted engines, trimmable stabilizer vs. trimmable elevator, etc.).
• Scan.
• Instrument interpretation.
• Cross-check of other pilot actions.
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• Aircraft control, including timing, coordination, and anticipation of control inputs.
• Steps required, corresponding instrument display changes, and manual inputs required that occur as different combinations of systems and modes are used for MFO.
• Decision making for selecting the different combinations of management, guidance, and control systems desired for FPM during line operations.
• Appropriately managing unexpected situations (e.g., due to threats, system anomalies, system failures, or pilot input/error).
• Staying engaged in the FPM task, remaining constantly prepared to make manual inputs or make decisions when needed.
• Crew coordination.
• Task and workload management during manual flight (as it pertains to both the PF and PM).
• Information integration.
• Problem solving.
3.3.2.2 Pilots returning from an absence that requires requalification training should be provided training (including simulator training) to enable proficiency in these fundamental skills as well as MFO and instrument flying skills.
3.3.3 N ormal Maneuvers vs . Non-Normal Events. Training pilots on required manual maneuvers (e.g., area departures/arrivals, approaches, slow flight, stalls, upsets, and steep turns) is beneficial to developing and maintaining manual flight skills. However, the need exists to assess pilot proficiency in MFO during expected and unexpected, non-normal events that challenge the pilot’s cognitive as well as psychomotor skills. For example, startle events, systems failures, congested traffic leading to multiple ATC changes during approach, and weather events all provide a significant challenge when coupled with the requirement to fly the aircraft manually. Subtle degradation of control and guidance systems also present a challenge. Accident and incident reports show a pattern of MFO errors during non-normal events related to a deficiency in cognitive skills.
3.3.3.1 MF O Maneuvers. Operators should develop a list of required, recommended, and other manual flight maneuvers with associated tasks, knowledge, and skills to ensure they are identifying, training, and assessing required knowledge and skills for the entire range of tasks required for manually flown maneuvers and profiles. They should also identify which maneuvers and tasks are to be accomplished only in simulator training. This helps to build and maintain overall expertise and proficiency in cognitive, psychomotor, and communication skills required for MFO, not just expertise in certain tasks within a maneuver.
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3.3.3.2 Required Maneuvers. Required manual flight maneuvers are contained within the approved part 121 training program requirements. This includes requirements such as:
1. Manually controlled slow flight (refer to § 121.423(b) and AC 120-111, Upset Prevention and Recovery Training).
2. Manually controlled loss of reliable airspeed (refer to § 121.423(b) and AC 120-111).
3. Manually controlled instrument departure and arrival (refer to § 121.423(b) and AC 120-114, Pilot Training and Checking (14 CFR Part 121 Subparts N and O, Including Appendices E and F)).
4. Upset recovery maneuvers (refer to § 121.423(b) and AC 120-111).
5. Recovery from bounced landing (refer to § 121.423(b) and AC 120-114).
6. Stall prevention and stall recovery (refer to part 121 appendix E, row III(h), and AC 120-109, Stall Prevention and Recovery Training ).
7. Takeoff with simulated engine failure (refer to part 121 appendix E, row II(d) and appendix F, row II(d); and AC 120-114).
8. Manually controlled Instrument Landing System (ILS) approach with simulated engine failure (refer to part 121 appendix E, row III(l)(2) and appendix F, row III(c)(2); AC 120-114; and AC 120-54, Advanced Qualification Program).
9. Manually flown takeoff, departure to cruise (refer to § 121.423(b) and part 121 appendices E and F).
10. Manually flown descent, arrival, approach, and landing (refer to §121.423(b) and part 121 appendices E and F).
3.3.3.3 Recommended Practices. In addition to the required manual flight maneuvers, there are recommended practices that could provide additional opportunities in training for practicing MFO skills, in all flight phases. In some cases, these opportunities should be accomplished in normal line operations as well. The associated maneuvers, tasks, knowledge, and skills are found in guidance material, such as AC 120-114.
3.3.4 Training Scenarios. Training scenarios should address the operator’s specific circumstances (e.g., pilot demographics and operational environment) and common error trends as identified through operator/industry safety programs. Scenarios may be incorporated as part of the Maneuvers Based Training (MBT) required by § 121.423, in a Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) scenario, or other scenario-based training (SBT) and integrated with the energy management training considerations and training scenarios in Chapter 6, Energy Management.
3.3.4.1 Recommended training scenarios for MFO, in addition to part 121 training requirements, include manually flying to address the following:
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1. Out of trim conditions – how to recover and manually fly to a safe landing.
2. Go-arounds initiated at other than minimum descent altitude (MDA)/decision altitude (DA).
3. Visual approaches in various weather and/or lighting conditions.
4. Operations in different combinations of automated systems and modes based on aircraft equipage. Examples of different combinations include the following:
• FD on, AP off, AT on.
• FD on, AP off, AT off.
• FD on, AP on, AT off.
• FD off, AP off, AT off.
• FD off, AP off, AT on.
5. Engine-out raw data Category (CAT) I ILS approach.
6. Manual flight with hydraulic system malfunction.
7. Manual flight with flight control malfunction(s) affecting aircraft handling characteristics.
8. Visual circuit with partial power.
9. Loss of all engines.
10. Prevention, recognition, and manual recovery from unintended deviation from flightpath.
11. Prevention, recognition, and manual recovery from unintended autoflight states.
3.3.4.1.1 Pilots must have the proficiency to manually fly the aircraft at any time (even for the entire flight), without the aid of automated systems.8 This requires that pilot knowledge and skills be developed, and proficiency maintained, for each task associated with every manually flown flight maneuver. This also requires the pilot to have the ability to regularly exercise required tasks and their associated knowledge and skills in both the airplane and simulator to maintain proficiency. Pilots should be regularly evaluated on their proficiency to manually fly the aircraft while conducting MFO.
3.3.4.1.2 In addition to required knowledge and skills for MFO, pilots need the confidence and cognitive capacity to accomplish and manage the tasks associated with manually flying the airplane. This includes managing time, tasks, workload, and changes due to the variability of operations. For example, if an operator wants to assess pilot proficiency for a manually flown
8 Part 121 appendix E.