Page CHAPTER 5. THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTORS
500. Minimum Qualifications23
501. Instructor Responsibilities23
CHAPTER 6. LINE OPERATIONAL SIMULATION SCENARIO DESIGN
600. Line Operational Simulation (LOS) Scenario Design Methodologies25
601. Philosophy of LOS Design and Conduct25
602. Scenario Design Process26
Table 6-1. LOS Design Methodology28
603. Identification of Primary CRM Training Objectives30
604. Identification of Primary Technical Objectives30
605. Developing LOS Scenarios With Automation Themes30
606. Identification of Possible Incidents That Will Produce the Training Objectives31
607. Event Set Solution Versus Management and Event Trigger Selection32
Table 6-2. Selected Scenario Event Set Index With Phase of Flight and Proficiency
Objectives35
608. The Event Set Matrix35
609. Integration And Validation of CRM Skills to Event Sets36
Table 6-3. Selected Scenario Event Set Index With Phase of Flight and CRM
Behaviors38
Table 6-4. The Event Set Matrix39
Table 6-5. The Event Set Assessment/Grade Sheet40
610. Scripting and Validating the LOS Scenario41
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CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF LINE OPERATIONAL SIMULATION
100. GENERAL. Certain elements about line operational simulation (LOS) must be understood to ensure that its primary objective, to provide realistic line-oriented flight training (LOFT) and evaluation, are met. These elements apply to both recurrent and qualification LOFT, and are described in this chapter.
NOTE: Some or all of these elements may also apply to special purpose operational training (SPOT) and line operational evaluation (LOE). See chapters 5 and 6 of this AC for more information on how these concepts apply to these types of LOSs.
101. LOS PHILOSOPHY.
a. The overall objective of LOS is to improve total flightcrew performance by combining crew resource management (CRM) and technical skills. CRM skills include techniques that allow and encourage crews to become better problem-solvers and resource managers. The LOS context must be structured to enable CRM behaviors to emerge and the crew to become aware of them; that is, the scenario must last long enough for crew traits to become evident and should require CRM skills to be displayed in response to specific circumstances. Similarly, scenario construction should focus on the CRM and technical objectives integrated into a training program.
b. LOFT and SPOT are training events in which crews can enhance their CRM and technical skills. LOE contains events in which CRM and technical skills are assessed. LOS learning and assessment should not be artificially stress-free; crewmembers should maintain performance parameters applicable to their phase of training. This will require crews to handle failures and their consequences. If the LOS instructor identifies crewmember performance deficiencies, additional training or instruction should be provided.
102. CREW COMPOSITION AND PARTICIPATION. LOS should take place in a line operational environment with a complete crew. A complete crew concept allows crewmembers to use their full resources and creativity to create a complete learning experience. A complete crew consists of crewmembers for each seat position who are line-qualified or in qualification training for their respective seat positions. During LOS, each crewmember performs both as an individual and as a member of a team, as is expected during line operations. Line crewmembers must be scheduled and paired together, as much as practical, in a standard crew configuration
(e.g., line captain with line first officer). Circumstances will occur where the initial composition of the schedule cannot be maintained. Hiring requirements, high first officer to captain ratios, illness or failure of a crewmember to progress, are all situations that would necessitate providing a seat substitute to complete the training. In all cases, the seat substitute must be task-familiar with the duty position.
103. REAL-WORLD SITUATIONS. LOS should contain scenarios of real world, line operational situations, which progress in real time. These scenarios should be representative of flight segments where an entire en route operation is completed. In cases of flights with flight Par 100 Page 1
segments involving repetitive events, the en route segments may be compressed. However, if the scenario is compressed, enough time should be allotted for crewmembers to resume or restart the scenario without confusion. In addition, the scenario compression method must be designed and executed to minimize degradation of scenario realism and enhance training or checking.
104. NO-JEOPARDY TRAINING. LOFT and SPOT are “no-jeopardy” training (i.e., there is no certificate action based on LOFT/SPOT performance). If the LOFT instructor identifies crewmember performance deficiencies, additional training or instruction will be provided. This training or instruction should be in a form most appropriate to correct the specific performance deficiency, including additional LOFT. Before the crewmember may return to line operations, the performance deficiencies will be corrected, and the instructor will document the training as satisfactorily completed. The “no-jeopardy” concept allows crewmembers to use their full resources and creativity. At the end of a LOFT session and after debriefing, the instructor certifies that the training has been completed.
105. PHASES OF LOS. LOS scenarios should contain the following phases
a. Briefing. Before the flight segment begins, the instructor should brief crewmembers on the LOS scenario, including the training objectives, and the role of the instructor (i.e., the instructor is considered “not present,” except as an air traffic controller (ATC) or as another ground base entity). The role of the flightcrew should be discussed in the briefing (i.e., flight crewmembers should perform their duties just as they would in line operations). Information about “the environmental setting of the scenario” should also be discussed.
b. Preflight Planning Documents and Activities. Preflight planning documents (e.g., weather reports and flight plans) should be prepared with the operator’s particular training objectives in mind. For example, the operator may choose to have crewmembers learn how to handle unfavorable weather conditions or how to correct improper fuel loads. Preflight activities include cockpit setup, computation of takeoff data, etc.
c. Flight Segment. The flight segment includes taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, and landing, as appropriate. It should also include the time in which communication with ATC and other ground agencies takes place.
d. Debriefing. Debriefing should include feedback to crewmembers on their performance.
Positive comments regarding crew performance should be emphasized in the debriefing as well as crew performance that needs improvement. The debriefing involves instructor critiques of individual crewmembers and of the crew as a team. Also, it is important that crewmembers be given the opportunity to critique and analyze their own performance and review key points of the video record, if used (see paragraphs 314 and 316 for further discussion of critiques, debriefing, and use of video records).
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106. TRAINING HOURS, LOE, RECURRENT LOFT AND QUALIFICATION LOFT.
The Administrator will approve the content and duration of LOFT/LOE scenarios. By regulation, recurrent LOFT and qualification LOFT must be scheduled for at least 4 hours. The 4 hours of crewmember, simulator/flight training device (FTD) training should include cockpit preparation, preflight activities, crew briefings, and interactions with flight dispatch and other ground agencies. Reasonable amounts of time should be allowed for problem solving (e.g., consulting minimum equipment lists and operations manuals, preparing takeoff data, as well as other crew actions that are occasioned by the training scenario). Any additional hours of LOS session time, beyond the LOFT scenario(s), may be used for other specific training requirements subject to the approval of the FAA. All crewmembers participating in a LOFT session are credited with 4 hours of training time.
107. LOS SCENARIOS. LOS scenarios should be formatted using the following guidelines:
a. Objectives. The operator should assign specific training objectives to each scenario.
These training objectives should be based on the particular needs of the operator. For example, if an operator is experiencing an unusual frequency of a specific operational problem, such as wet or icy runways, the scenarios should be designed to include exposure to that particular operational problem. Other specific objectives may include winter operations training, unusual airport or runway operations, alternate operation of automated systems, etc. The FAA may also identify training objectives based upon documented trends.
b. Scenario Construction. A variety of scenarios can be constructed by choosing different combinations of elements from the suggested categories listed below. Scenarios should be representative of the flight segment appropriate to the operations being conducted by the operator.
(1) Pre-flight activities might contain elements such as icing or cargo loading anomalies that the crew must address during pre-flight planning and cockpit preparation.
(2) Taxi operations, including the concept of navigating the aircraft from the gate to the runway or from the runway to the gate using available signage and charts to prevent runway incursions.
(3) Origin, routing, and destination (e.g., short vs. long routes).
(4) Revised arrival procedures (e.g., an unexpected runway change).
(5) Alternate operation of flight management systems.
(6) Abnormal and emergency conditions, including simple conditions (e.g., a potential hot start) and complex conditions that continue for the entire flight (e.g., a failed essential alternating current bus).
(7) Adverse weather conditions.
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(8) Partial or full loss of integrated flight management systems.
c. Scenario Cues. Some scenarios should introduce cues that would indicate grossly incorrect pitch trim setting. For all-cargo operations, some scenarios should introduce cues that would indicate grossly incorrect cargo loading (e.g., the instructor verbally advises the crew that another flight observes the nose strut appears bottomed-out; that the airplane appears excessively nose-high on all attitude instruments; or that nosewheel steering is skipping during turns, even on dry pavement).
d. Scenario Timing. Scenarios should run in real time. This may include inactive time to realistically resemble actual operations.
e. Scenarios Development. Scenarios should contain realistic circumstances such as messages from ATC or flight attendant interruptions. Scenarios should also be developed to observe checklist management procedures, standard callouts, leadership qualities, assertiveness, crew coordination, communication and ground movement operations. Operators may use these elements to design full-length, real-time scenarios, as well as shorter scenarios that teach specific skills (e.g., windshear, special navigation equipment, traffic alert and collision avoidance system, incorrect pitch trim settings, incorrect cargo loading, etc.).
f. Scenario Updates. Scenarios should be updated periodically (at least annually) to help ensure they continue to meet training objectives. Just as crewmembers cannot anticipate all flight operational situations, operators should try to prevent crewmembers from anticipating the entire content of the scenarios.
108. APPROVAL OF SCENARIOS. The Administrator will approve LOFT and LOE scenarios. When submitting LOFT or LOE scenarios for approval, operators should state what training objectives they expect to achieve. Operators may elect to submit specific LOFT or LOE scenarios or a description of a system that uses a menu of different flight situations and environmental conditions that can be selected randomly to construct a variety of LOFT or LOE scenarios. In any case, scenarios that comply with the elements provided in this AC and meet the operator’s stated training or evaluation objectives may be approved. Detailed scripts of the scenarios are not required for FAA approval. When updated, scenarios should conform to the same guidelines that apply to original approval.
109. PRE-LOS BRIEFING.
a. The philosophy underlying the particular LOS being administered should be thoroughly explained before the crew begins to plan for the flight. Inadequate LOS briefings often set the stage for problems that later interfere with LOS realism. The most common difficulty is failure to convince the crew that the LOS facilitator is functionally not present in the simulator—that he or she will not be available for communication except in roles as ATC, company, maintenance, etc. The latter fact cannot be overly stressed in the pre-LOS briefing.
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Emphasis is also needed to make certain the cabin crew is considered in operating the flight and that they are also a resource.
b. The following LOS conduct principles should be presented in the preflight briefing:
(1) Except for the LOE, LOS is designed as a pure learning experience.
(2) The facilitator’s role in LOS is to manage the training situation to maximize learning.
This does not include scenario interruptions to “teach” right solutions, or to “test” the trainees. It does include instructor guidance to prevent scenario degradation to negative learning and reinforcement of preferred or standardized solutions to problems. The opportunity for full selfanalysis is provided during the debriefing. The LOS facilitator will take notes only to assist in this debriefing.
(3) LOS is a training concept designed to accent technical proficiency, as well as command responsibilities, crew coordination, communication, and CRM. Line realism is maintained to the greatest extent possible.
(4) All phases of flight will be sequenced in real time. Center-stored routing will be followed unless the crew or ATC requests rerouting.
(5) Mistakes may be made, just as they sometimes occur on the line, and the aircrew is expected to continue the operation.
(6) Frequently, there is no book solution to an LOS exercise—there may be no “one correct” solution. For example, the crew may decide that a diversion is more prudent than landing at the filed destination. Scenarios should be written to offer several operational choices.
(7) All abnormal or emergency situations will be handled in the appropriate manner.
These situations will last throughout the flight, unless they can be corrected by the use of alternate operations or any line resources normally at the crew’s disposal.
(8) Equipment will be placarded according to minimum equipment list (MEL) procedure and noted in the logbook. The aircrew will consider placarded items legal per the aircraft MEL.
The instructor/check airman has the responsibility to determine whether effective training/checking can take place with the inoperative equipment.
(9) During an Advanced Qualification Programs (AQP) LOE, the crew will be given line-oriented situations to address as a part of the evaluation. The crew will be expected to perform to standards in both technical and CRM skills that have been trained during an AQP.
The evaluator will be assessing outcomes of event sets that have been designed with specific success criteria. In addition, the evaluator will assess the technical and CRM skills of the aircrew against defined criteria.
(10) Headsets and emergency breathing equipment will be used by all crewmembers as required in line operations.
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110. CRM COMPONENT OF THE PRE-LOS BRIEFING:
a. In addition to establishing the rules for the conduct of LOS, the LOS briefing should include a reverse briefing on CRM factors affecting crew performance. The concept of reverse briefing is to elicit information from the crew by encouraging them to brief themselves, helping to determine their level of expertise. Reverse briefing makes the crew active participants rather than passive recipients of briefings on issues already understood.
Questions using the CRM behavioral indicators (AC 120-51, Crew Resource Management Training, current edition, appendix 1), mentioned in paragraphs b, c, d, and e below, can effectively elicit the level of understanding that the crew has about human factors and technical proficiency issues.
b. The crew could be asked to discuss the conduct and quality of an effective creworiented briefing. Crew performance is highly associated with the quality of the initial crew briefing. The following is an example of carefully selected opening questions that will help to initiate the discussion:
(1) What can be said to create an atmosphere for establishing the team concept and environment within the flight deck and with flight service?
(2) What are the components of a briefing that is operationally thorough, interesting, and addresses coordination, planning, and problems?
(3) Overall responsibility is primarily a captain’s function; what are the responsibilities of the other crewmembers and how can they add significantly to planning and definition of potential problem areas?
(4) What can be done to make cabin crewmembers feel they are part of the team? The importance of the crew briefing cannot be overstated.
c. Questions that encourage crews to consider communication issues include:
(1) How does the crew view inquiry and advocacy?
(2) To what extent should crew members advocate a course of action they feel is best, even when it involves conflict and disagreements with others?
(3) What is their feeling towards the relationship between inquiry and advocacy and the captain’s authority?
(4) How do they define the proper balance between authority and assertiveness?
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(5) What are the indications that a crew is concerned with the effective accomplishment of necessary tasks?
(6) Can they give examples where poor workload management and the lack of situational awareness has contributed to accidents or incidents?
(7) Does casual social conversation during periods of low workload indicate a lack of vigilance?
(8) What can be done to avoid overloading individual crewmembers?
d. The relationship between CRM and technical proficiency is a rich area for crew discussion. Some important questions to ask include:
(1) What is their understanding of the relationship between technical proficiency and CRM?
(2) Can CRM overcome a lack of technical proficiency?
e. LOS assumes knowledge of systems and an understanding of, and proficiency in, skills involving procedures and techniques. Training programs have always been concerned with developing the specialized skills required to be technically proficient crewmembers.
However, how well the entire crew discharges the technical aspects of the flight reflects awareness that a high degree of technical proficiency is essential for safe and efficient operations. In the briefing, it must be made very clear that demonstrated mastery of CRM concepts cannot overcome a lack of proficiency, but just as importantly, high technical proficiency cannot guarantee safe operations in the absence of effective crew coordination.
f. Also useful is a discussion of the crew attitudes toward self-critique. What is their understanding of critique? Do they see any benefit in reviewing positive behavior? Have the crewmembers used critique on line operations? When do they feel critique is appropriate?
g. These are just a few of the issues that can be addressed in an LOS briefing. The proper briefing will reinforce CRM principles and technical procedures learned during initial and recurrent training. Without a proper briefing, LOS becomes a full mission simulation without a focus. Though it can be a positive learning experience, it will usually be centered on individual technical proficiency and abnormal checklist usage.
111. LOS CRM BRIEFING AND CREW ORIENTATION.
a. A thorough LOS CRM briefing provides the following:
(1) Establishes an environment for open and interactive communication (e.g., calls for questions or comments, answers questions directly, listens with patience, does not interrupt or “talk over,” does not rush through the briefing, makes eye contact as appropriate).
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(2) Is interactive, two-way, and emphasizes the importance of questions, critique, and the offering of information.
(3) Sets the agenda, outlines expectations, and establishes a “team concept.”
(4) Covers pertinent safety and operational issues.
(5) Identifies potential problems such as weather, delays, and abnormal system operations.
(6) Provides guidelines for crew actions; division of labor and crew workload are addressed.
(7) Sets expectations for how deviations in simulator performance and mechanical problems are to be handled.
b. The briefing that includes CRM issues will also give direction to the LOS facilitator’s conduct of the LOS. It will help to focus the facilitator’s observations on the CRM behaviors that will later be highlighted in debriefing.
c. The briefing should prepare the crew for an effective training experience. A good briefing is operationally thorough, interesting, and will provide an overview of the overall LOS. Effective facilitators create the appropriate training environment and demonstrate their own commitment to LOS. The crew will be prepared to participate in an authentic simulation of the line operations and the crew debriefing following the simulator training.
112. PREFLIGHT ACTIVITIES.
a. LOS facilitators will provide the crew with complete flight planning documentation.
An effort should be made to duplicate, as closely as possible, the preflight and dispatch process. The weather sequences, weight and balance, and other documents should be the same as those provided prior to line flights, and include the following LOS planning and preparation documents:
(1) Dispatch release with center-stored flight plan and flight plan analysis.
(2) Weight and balance, loading and fuel loading instructions.
(3) Weather and forecasts.
(4) Notices to Airmen/Intams.
(5) Performance data sheet and automated terminal information service information.
(6) Inbound maintenance log sheets signed off.
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(7) Continued items.
(8) MEL placards.
(9) Company documents.
b. The flightcrew should be in the simulator early enough to allow adequate time for the crew to perform a normal flight deck preflight setup. If it is customary for the flight engineer to enter the flight deck before the captain and first officer, that sequence should be adhered to.
However, in the interest of saving time, it is possible to modify the scenario to provide shorter ground times, as on a through flight. A planned departure time toward which all preparations can be directed helps to ensure that these activities are performed efficiently, and also helps to enhance the realism of an LOS scenario.
c. Certain simulator problems that cause interference with the realism associated with LOS can occur. If a component required for a given scenario is inoperative, that scenario should not be flown. However, minor simulator malfunctions can be placarded, in accordance with MEL procedures, just as the maintenance crew would do on the line. If an actual equipment failure occurs in flight, and it is consistent with failures that could occur in an aircraft, the scenario can proceed, with modification if necessary.
113. CREWMEMBER RESPONSIBILITIES. Crewmembers’ duties include:
a. Perform their normal flight duties.
b. Use avionics equipment as they would normally do during flight. Radio frequencies must be changed as required.
c. Be natural in character and operation. They should not be inhibited or try to operate in a manner calculated to give the “Academy” solution or to please the LOS facilitators.
d. Plan the flight as one would a real line flight, with any service the company or ATC normally provides available to the crew.
e. Perform all normal procedures and communications, such as final weight checks, departure reports, and in-range reports.
f. Headsets and emergency breathing equipment will be used by all crewmembers to the same extent as required in line operations.
114. DEBRIEFING THE LOS.
a. After the LOS is completed, the manner in which the debriefing is handled by the facilitator is of key importance if CRM skills are to be reinforced and improved. The facilitator should not handle the debrief in a “teacher-tell” manner. Instead, the facilitator should operate as a resource to crewmembers by highlighting different portions of the LOS Par 112 Page 9
that may be suitable for review, critique, and discussion. The discussion should be led by the crewmembers themselves, using the facilitator and the videotape as resources during their critique. Handled in this way, crew-led debriefs may occur with increasing frequency on the line after a difficult segment, or in other cases where crew critique and review is appropriate.
b. Because the focus of LOS is on the integration of CRM skills into the technical skills normally assessed in flight training, the LOS debriefing session will concentrate on this area.
Key items for discussion include technical proficiency, as well as crew management, crew coordination, and crew communications. The use of systems and other resources are other areas for attention. The discussion should include the crew’s use of ATC and company communications; manuals, charts and software; the use of other crewmembers; and the use of autopilot, autothrottle, and other potential workload-reducing devices. It is the facilitator’s responsibility to ensure that these items are fully explored during the debriefing sessions.
c. Frequently, crews are more critical of themselves than the facilitator would ever be.
Self-criticism and self-examination are almost always present in these situations, and in many cases they are much more effective than facilitator criticism. Thus, the facilitator should do everything possible to foster this sort of self-analysis. In the role of moderator, the facilitator can guide the discussion to areas that he or she has noted. Questions about certain procedures, decisions, and mistakes should be asked. However, the facilitator should minimize “lectures” about what is right and wrong. Obviously, the facilitator should avoid embarrassing the crewmembers. In order to be effective, the facilitator should use the following guidelines:
(1) Actively states the debriefing and critique agenda and solicits agenda topics from the crew on items they would like to cover; sets time limits.
(2) Asks the crew for their overall self-appraisal of the flight.
(3) States own reaction to the LOS in an objective and performance-oriented way.
Actively guards against making the crew defensive.
(4) Highlights key incidents and examples from the videotape that include technical as well as CRM performance examples. Selects material for discussion that illustrates key behaviors using the crew performance markers. When using videotape, show only enough material to make the point.
(5) Effectively integrates technical and CRM feedback into the debriefing. Does not preach to the crew, and does not gloss over items worthy of crew discussion.
(6) Exercises patience and is not reluctant to probe into key areas where individual and crew improvement is needed.
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(7) Ensures that all crewmembers participate in the discussion and effectively draws out quiet or hostile crewmembers.
(8) Provides a clear summary and recap of key learning points.
(9) Asks the crew, and individual members, for specific feedback on their performance.
(10) Is effective in both technical and CRM debriefing.
d. During debriefing, crew performance and individual performances should be openly discussed and assessed by the facilitator. Constructive assessment of an individual can be mentioned in the presence of the full crew.
e. One of the goals of LOS is to enable crewmembers to gain a greater understanding of their behaviors and their consequences, and be able to explore new behavioral strategies in an LOS training environment where formal, mandated evaluation is explicitly omitted. The debriefing should respect this goal and build on it to provide a positive learning experience.
f. At the appropriate time, the facilitator should summarize the debriefing. In the summary, every effort should be made to relate the training experience to line operations. It is most desirable if the crewmembers recognize, for themselves, behaviors used in the LOS that they can carry back to the line, as feedback or critique is seldom used on the line. The LOS debriefing can help reinforce the importance of feedback even on routine line flights. Just a few minutes are needed to reinforce what went well or to discuss ways to improve crew performance at appropriate times during or at the conclusion of the flight.
g. In summary, the effective LOS facilitator will lead the crewmembers through self-critique of their performance. The debriefing and crew analysis period will include both technical and CRM discussion items. Positive points of crew performance as well as areas for improvement will be discussed. At the conclusion of the session, key learning points will be summarized.
115. LOE. The LOS briefing/debriefing guide must be modified for the LOE administered under an approved AQP. In the LOE, the facilitator is now an evaluator and must perform a different role. This role is to evaluate the standard performance of the proficiency objectives assigned to the event sets. Although the briefing will set the stage for the LOE, most carriers use this period to perform an oral review of crew knowledge concerning the operational issues presented in the LOE. For example, issues such as takeoff visibility and required alternates based on operational specifications might be covered. The debriefing is used to review the event sets and compare the success criteria assigned to these sets versus actual crew performance.
However, in this review, there still will be many opportunities for crewmembers to discuss their CRM and technical performance.
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