Par 100 Page 1 CHAPTER 1. DESIGN DAMAGE AND FAILURES
100. PROPELLER MAJOR REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS. Major repairs or alterations are only permitted within the context of this document or when a propeller manufacturer’s data approves that major repair or alteration. Only an appropriately rated repair station may accomplish major repairs or alterations. Refer to Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 43 appendix A for identification of major alterations and repairs to propellers.
101. PROPELLER DESIGN AND CAUSES OF FAILURE.
a. A propeller is one of the most highly stressed components on an aircraft. During normal operation, 10 to 25 tons of centrifugal force pull the blades from the hub while the blades are bending and flexing due to thrust and torque loads and engine, aerodynamic, and gyroscopic vibratory loads. A properly maintained propeller is designed to perform normally under these loads, but when propeller components are damaged by corrosion, stone nicks, ground strikes, etc., an additional unintended stress concentration is imposed and the design margin of safety may not be adequate. The result is excessive stress, and the propeller may fail.
b. Additional causes of overstress conditions are exposure to overspeed conditions, other object strikes, unauthorized alterations, engine problems, worn engine vibration dampers, lightning strike, etc. Most mechanical damage takes the form of sharp-edged nicks and scratches created by the displacement of material from the blade surface and corrosion that forms pits and other defects in the blade surface. This small-scale damage tends to concentrate stress in the affected area, and eventually, these high-stress areas may develop cracks. As a crack propagates, the stress becomes increasingly concentrated, increasing the crack growth rate. The growing crack may result in blade failure.
102. TYPES OF PROPELLER DAMAGE. Many types of damage cause propellers to fail or become unairworthy. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) data on propeller failures indicates that the majority of failures occur in the blade at the tip region, usually within several inches from the tip and often due to a crack initiator, such as a pit, nick, or gouge. However, a blade failure can occur along any portion of a blade, including the mid-blade, shank, and hub, particularly when nicks, scratches, corrosion, and cracks are present. Therefore, during propeller inspection and routine maintenance, it is important to inspect the entire blade. The severity of the damage determines the type of repairs required. Additional guidance on damage is given in manufacturers’ service documents, Chapter 2, paragraph 205 of this advisory circular (AC), and AC 43.13-1, current edition. The following paragraphs describe some of the types of damage that may be found in propellers.
a. Corrosion. One of the principal causes of loss of airworthiness in propellers is corrosion. External corrosion on metal blades, hubs, and other components poses a serious problem. Internal corrosion may exist where moisture may collect in internal cavities, such as hubs, blade clamps, and pitch control mechanisms. This threatens propeller structural integrity and performance without being noticed. The overhaul calendar time periods for propellers are established so that the propeller can be disassembled to inspect internal surfaces. Moreover, corrosion acts continuously, regardless of the actual time in operation. Corrosion on metal propeller components can be classified into three distinct types.
Par 102 Page 2
(1) Surface Corrosion. The loss of surface metal due to chemical or electrochemical action with visible oxidation products that usually have a contrasting color and texture to the base metal. Surface corrosion, as shown in Figures 1-1 and 1-2, generally results when the corrosion protection on a metal surface has been removed by erosion or polishing. Therefore, removing paint and corrosion protection, such as when polishing blades, is not recommended.
FIGURE 1-1.
Hub Surface Corrosion FIGURE 1-2.
Polished Blade Surface Corrosion
(2) Pitting. Pits consist of visible corrosion cavities extending inward from the metal surface. They can grow on the surface, under decals, or under improperly installed deice boots.
Pitting can appear to be relatively minor (0.010-inch deep) and still cause major problems since the pits could be a precursor to the initiation of cracks (see Figures 1-3 and 1-4).
FIGURE 1-3.
Pitting FIGURE 1-4.
Pitting on a Shot Peened Surface
(3) Intergranular Corrosion. Occurs in grain boundaries. The presence of intergranular corrosion may be the result of the continued presence of moisture such as under a decal, in a fastener hole, or where the anodize and paint protective barriers have been lost.
Exfoliation is a form of intergranular corrosion that occurs more often in forgings or rolled sheets and less often in castings. Exfoliation is sometimes visible as metal flaking and cracks on a blade leading edge (see Figure 1-5).
Par 102 Page 3 FIGURE 1-5.
Exfoliation on the Blade Leading Edge
b. F ace, Leading Edge, or Twist Misalignment. When propeller blades are bent, twisted, or cocked, they will not be properly aligned with each other in operation. This will cause vibration and may cause a loss of thrust. The level of vibration can be severe and, depending on the severity of the misalignment, could lead to catastrophic failure (see Chapter 2, subparagraph 203a).
c. Nick. A sharp, notchlike displacement of metal usually found on leading and trailing edges. All nicks are potential crack starters (see Figure 1-6).
d. Erosion. The loss of material from blade surface by the action of small particles such as sand or water and is usually present on the leading edge close to the tip. This damage destroys the blades’ corrosion protection, which might lead to blade failure (see Figure 1-7).
FIGURE 1-6.
Blade Nick FIGURE 1-7.
Erosion on a Metal Blade
Par 102 Page 4
e. Scratches, Gouges, Cuts, and Scoring. These terms describing surface damage are found in Appendix 1, Glossary of Common Propeller Terms.
f. Cracks. When found anywhere in a propeller, cracks are cause for its immediate removal and detailed inspection. Cracks in propellers will grow over time, perhaps very rapidly, and eventually lead to failure (see Figures 1-8 and 1-9).
FIGURE 1-8.
Hub Crack FIGURE 1-9.
Blade Crack From a Nick
g. Dents. Dents can be harmful depending on their size, location, and configuration.
Dents cause local stress risers around their perimeter and at the bottom under the surface.
Removing material should repair dents. Filling dents with any material, such as auto body compound, does nothing to correct the stress riser and is not approved. Failure may occur.
h. Lightning Strike. A lightning strike on a metal blade may be indicated by a small burnt and melted area on the blade, a trail of small pits along the blade, or may show no indication at all (see Figure 1-10). However, the damage from a lightning strike may be severe, affecting the strength of the blade material itself and damaging blade bearings or other internal components. Lightning always creates residual magnetism in steel parts. Inspection for damage from a reported lightning strike may require specialized equipment, like a gauss meter, to check for magnetism in steel components and should be accomplished by an appropriately rated propeller repair station. A lightning strike on a composite blade may be indicated by small burnt areas on the composite where the lightning may have attached or exited (see Figure 1-11 or 1-12). Composite blades may suffer other damage as well. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance manual for diagnosis and corrective action.
Par 102 Page 5 FIGURE 1-10.
Lightning Strike on a Metal Blade Tip FIGURE 1-11.
Strong Lightning Strike on a Composite Blade Tip FIGURE 1-12.
Lightning Strike on a Composite Surface
i. Overspeed. A propeller may have been exposed to an overspeed condition and give no indication of the event. However, the event may have severely damaged the propeller due to the dramatic increase in centrifugal loads. If the propeller is suspected of having been operated in an overspeed condition, it should be removed and sent to a propeller repair station to be inspected for elongation of bolt holes, dimension changes, or other signs of stress in accordance with the appropriate manufacturer’s maintenance instructions. Sometimes excessive tolerances in engine or propeller governor settings can permit overspeed conditions into restricted rotational speed ranges without the knowledge of the operator.
j. Foreign Object Strike. A foreign object strike can include a broad spectrum of damage, from no visible damage, to a small nick, to severe ground impact damage. A conservative approach in evaluating the damage is required because of the possibility that there may be hidden damage that is not readily apparent during a superficial visual inspection (see Figure 1-13). Refer to the manufacturer’s maintenance instructions for damage limitations.
Par 102 Page 6 FIGURE 1-13.
Propeller Blade Struck by a Foreign Object
k. F ire Damage or Heat Damage. On rare occasions, propellers have been exposed to fire or heat damage, such as a hangar or engine fire. In the event of such an incident, an inspection is required before further flight. Such parts are normally retired. If there is any indication or suspicion that aluminum propeller parts have been exposed to high temperatures (in excess of 200 °F (93 °C)), then the parts must be assumed to be unairworthy, unless it can be proven that there have been no adverse effects from the incident. Composite propeller blades may have a lower temperature threshold for potential damage. Refer to the manufacturer’s maintenance instructions for this limitation. Confirmation of airworthiness requires complete disassembly and inspection of the propeller by an appropriately rated propeller repair station in accordance with the propeller maintenance manual. Always advise the repair station that the propeller may have been exposed to heat or fire when it is sent in for this type of inspection.
Par 200 Page 7 CHAPTER 2. MAINTENANCE AND OVERHAUL
200. REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE AND OVERHAUL.
a. Sources of Propeller Repair Information. Airworthiness Directives (AD), Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS), manufacturers’ manuals, Service Letters (SL), and Service Bulletins (SB) specify methods and limits for propeller maintenance, inspection, repair, and removal from service. When a manufacturer’s data specifies that major repairs are permitted to a specific model blade or other propeller component, only an appropriately rated repair facility may accomplish those repairs. An FAA-certificated mechanic with at least a powerplant rating can accomplish all other propeller maintenance and minor repair by using the practices and techniques specified by this advisory circular (AC) and in the propeller manufacturer’s service data. Some maintenance and minor repairs in this category are the removal of minor nicks, scratches, and small areas of surface corrosion; painting; and minor deicer boot repairs. Because of the complexity of propeller damage and because damage tends to be hidden or not obvious to untrained maintenance personnel, we recommend that propeller damage be referred to experienced repair personnel whenever doubt exists regarding a condition that has been observed. We further recommend that owners/operators follow the manufacturer’s maintenance and overhaul program.
b. Service Personnel Limitations and Responsibilities. Title 14 CFR part 65, § 65.81 specifically excludes certificated and rated airframe and powerplant mechanics from performing major repairs and/or major alterations on aircraft propellers. Title 14 CFR part 43 appendix A defines major alterations and repairs to propellers. However, 14 CFR part 145, § 145.201 provides that an appropriately rated repair station may perform such major repairs or alterations provided the work is done in accordance with technical data approved by the Administrator.
Part 145 also specifies the personnel qualifications and other requirements applicable to propeller repair stations. When complying with ADs, service personnel are required to review all applicable manufacturers’ SBs, manuals, and other information on the propeller being inspected, overhauled, or repaired, if included by reference.
c. Periodic Reconditioning of Aluminum Fixed-Pitch Propellers. A number of factors will require returning a propeller to a propeller repair station for service, repair, or rework. All propeller manufacturers recommend a periodic reconditioning of aluminum fixed-pitch models at specified service time intervals to prevent blade failure from surface damage that may not be visible. This reconditioning requires the propeller to be returned to a repair station for removal of a thin layer of surface metal to remove surface and subsurface damage, such as nicks and corrosion. Fatigue cycles generated by some engine/propeller combinations can require manufacturer-reconditioning intervals as often as every 500 hours of operation.
d. Periodic Overhaul and/or Inspection of Variable Pitch Propellers. Propeller manufacturers recommend a periodic propeller overhaul or teardown inspection. Some propeller makes and models are required by ADs to be inspected, repaired, or partially disassembled for evaluation. In most cases, such a requirement is a major repair or alteration and dictates that the propeller is returned to a propeller repair station.
Par 200 Page 8
e. Inspection and Maintenance by the Owner/Operator. Notwithstanding the other requirements stated herein, it is incumbent on the owner/operator to inspect and conduct routine maintenance on their propeller. This document and others cited in this AC provide guidelines for doing such maintenance.
f. Propeller Records. Maintenance records are a required part of aircraft maintenance.
Propeller maintenance recordkeeping responsibility is ultimately assigned to the owner/operator of aircraft operated under 14 CFR part 91 in accordance with part 91, § 91.403. Section 91.417 requires a record of maintenance, including a record of total time in service and time since last overhaul for propellers required to be overhauled on a specific time basis, for each propeller. A propeller logbook is an appropriate document for recording total time in service and time since overhaul. In some cases, lack of records may require premature maintenance activity, overhaul, or possible retirement since most ADs presume if the time in service and time since overhaul is not known, the propeller requires compliance with the most restrictive level called out in the AD.
Propeller logbooks are available from various sources, including the propeller manufacturer.
Damage as well as details of maintenance to the propeller should be entered into the logbook.
The total time in service and time since the last overhaul recorded in the propeller logbook should be updated at minimum at the time of annual inspection when reviewing the aircraft operating maintenance records.
201. CLEANING. Proper cleaning of the propeller is critical to maintaining its continued airworthiness. Care should be taken in cleaning all propeller surfaces to prevent damaging the surface being cleaned. Many propeller surfaces have finish requirements that can be damaged by harsh brushing, cleaning agents, and handling. Other surfaces have special finish textures, such as shot or glass bead peening, that can be harmed by abrasion or polishing with steel wool or other abrasive materials. In addition, special corrosion protection finishes, such as lacquer, paint, or anodizing, can be inadvertently removed during cleaning. Use of high-pressure washers is not recommended to clean propellers because the high pressure may drive water under seals and into the hub and other cavities in the propeller. Once the water enters the propeller, it can establish a corrosive internal environment. Alkaline and acidic solutions and strippers for routine cleaning should also be avoided.
NOTE: If any oil or grease is evident on the propeller, the source of the leak should be determined before cleaning since the oil or grease may be leaking from a crack, seal, or lubrication fitting (see Figure 2-1).
Par 201 Page 9 FIGURE 2-1.
Grease Leak Residues
a.
Cleaning. Cleaning should be done with clean water and a nonalkaline cleaner.
b. Post-Cleaning. Rinse the propeller with clean water and dry with a soft cloth.
202. INSPECTION METHODS. The methods used in propeller inspection are versions of methods used in inspecting the entire aircraft. These methods have precisely determined probabilities that, if a defect exists, it will be detected. This reliability of detection of defects permits inspection intervals to be established. To ensure that a component will remain airworthy, it is necessary that the inspection used to detect defects in that component be accurately and reliably accomplished. This process requires that all inspections of the same part on a propeller be performed in a uniform manner to ensure the appropriate probability of detection of a defect.
The inspector should be trained in the method, and the inspection device used should be in good condition and calibrated as required. A detailed procedure should be used. A more detailed discussion of the requirements for satisfactory inspection may be contained in the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents. All inspections, other than visual, must be conducted in an appropriately rated repair station.
a. Visual Inspection. The primary defense against early failure of propellers. When inspecting propellers, it is necessary to use touch and other senses as well as visual cues.
Changes in surface roughness, unusual free play, and odd sounds give hints as to conditions that may affect airworthiness. Feel for roughness and look for small variations in color, texture changes, waviness, and changes in reflection that may signal the removal of protective coatings.
Some areas may require the use of a 10X magnifying glass to identify small features or find cracking. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for specific instructions.
b. Penetrant Inspection. Fluorescent penetrant is far superior to nonfluorescing penetrant (visible dye penetrant), particularly for detecting small surface cracks on propeller blades. The use of visible dye penetrant is not recommended. Cleaning is vital to ensure reliable detection and the absence of false indications. Sometimes, manufacturers recommend specialized cleaning procedures involving media blasting and etch. Such procedures, if called for, are beyond the capabilities of most maintenance personnel and maintenance organizations not specifically FAA-certificated to accomplish them. Penetrant inspection on propellers is
Par 202 Page 10 conducted in a rated repair station. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for special instructions.
c. Ultrasonic Inspection. Ultrasonic inspection uses specialized equipment to send, receive, and process sound waves to detect flaws on or below the surface of the component being tested. Appropriately certified inspectors conduct ultrasonic inspections. Ultrasonic inspections are very specific and require specially designed probes and calibration standards to obtain reliable results. Ultrasonic inspections can be conducted on composites, wood, and ferrous and nonferrous metals. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for special instructions.
d. Eddy Current Inspection. Eddy current inspection uses specialized equipment to generate and measure an electric field that detects flaws at or slightly below the surface of the component being inspected. Eddy current inspection is conducted by appropriately certificated inspectors. This type of inspection is very specific and requires specially designed probes and calibration standards to obtain reliable results. Eddy current inspection is used on ferrous and nonferrous metals. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for special instructions.
e. Magnetic Particle Inspection. Magnetic particle inspection is conducted at an appropriately rated repair station. It is useful for finding cracks, inclusions, and imperfections at or near the surface of ferrous parts. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for special instructions.
203. TYPES OF INSPECTION. The paragraphs below describe nondestructive inspection (NDI) and visual inspection techniques that have been adapted to, or are unique to, the propeller.
a. Inspection After Suspected Impact. Propellers that have been involved in a known or suspected static or rotating impact with relatively solid objects (e.g., the ground, maintenance stands, runway lights, or birds) or relatively yielding objects (e.g., snow banks, puddles of water, or heavy accumulation of slush) should be inspected for damage in accordance with the manufacturer’s maintenance manual before further flight. If the inspection reveals one or more of the following listed indications, the propeller should be removed and sent to an appropriately rated repair station:
(1) A bent or twisted blade.
(2) A blade that tracks out of limits.
(3) A loose blade in the hub for blades that is not normally loose in the hub.
(4) Any noticeable or suspected damage to the pitch change mechanism.
(5) Any diameter reduction (tip damage).
(6) A tracking alignment error.
Par 203 Page 11
(7) Visible major damage, such as nicks, gouges, corrosion, or cracks.
(8) Operating changes, such as vibration or an oil or grease leak.
b. Propeller Tracking Inspection.
(1) Evaluating propeller blade tracking can indicate much information about propeller condition. Accurate propeller tracking requires securing the aircraft in a stationary position and ensuring that the engine propeller shaft is tight against the thrust bearing. A blade-tracking datum can be made simply by placing a block on the ground in front of the aircraft in the propeller arc.
Raise the block as required to obtain a clearance between the blade tip (blade vertical) and the datum block not exceeding 1/4-inch. Another method is to raise a block in front of the propeller with a small gap. A cowling fixture can be used as well. In some aircraft, it may be necessary to relieve engine compression (loosen spark plugs) and seek a calm day to eliminate outside disturbances that would cause an apparent tracking error. Draw a line on the block next to the blade tip position. Move the blade in a fore-and-aft direction and mark the limits of such motion.
Pull all the blades past the drawn datum, checking fore-and-aft free play as before. No blade should deviate more than 1/16-inch from the plane of rotation, as defined by the drawn marks, unless the manufacturer’s service manuals define greater limits. Record any abnormal condition in the propeller logbook.
(2) It should be noted that some propeller blades require centrifugal load to seat properly in the hub, so propellers of this type will show a large amount of free play. Follow the manufacturer’s tracking inspection instructions for these propellers. Blade-to-blade tracking differences could indicate a deformed blade. Free play differences on blades may indicate internal blade bearing, preload system, or actuating pin problems. Safety practices, such as ensuring that switches are off or grounding the magnetos, are necessary to ensure that rotating the propeller does not cause the engine to start during the tracking inspection (see Figure 2-2). A repair station should not return propeller blades that exhibit any looseness or out-of-track conditions exceeding 1/16-inch (or the manufacturer’s specification) to service without inspection/repair.
Par 203 Page 12 FIGURE 2-2.
Propeller Tracking (Wood Block or Cowling Fixture Shown)
c. P ropeller Overspeed Inspection. Generally, propeller overspeed causes no visible external damage to the propeller. In the event of an overspeed event, the manufacturer’s instructions should be followed. These instructions usually contain permissible transient overspeed and overspeed limits above which the propeller must be removed and sent to a repair station. The problem that caused the permissible transient overspeed condition should be corrected since the propeller is not designed to be routinely operated at the transient overspeed limit.
d. Inspection for Corrosion. Corrosion may be present on the propeller in varying amounts. Prior to performing any inspection process, maintenance personnel should determine the specific type and extent of the corrosion and become familiar with the propeller manufacturer’s recommended corrosion removal limitations and practices.
e. Inspection of Aluminum Blades. For aluminum blades, conduct a thorough visual inspection per the manufacturer’s maintenance document. If blade damage is beyond that