U .S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Advisory Circular Subject: Operational Use of Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems Date: 11/20/24 AC No: 90-120 Initiated by: AFS-400 Change:
This Advisory Circular (AC) provides an acceptable means, but not the only means, to address operational use of Collision Avoidance Systems (CAS), including Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS) and Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS). Approval of an ACAS II for a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Type Certificate (TC) or Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) is comprehensively addressed in AC 20-151, Airworthiness Approval of Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS II), Versions 7.0 and 7.1 and Associated Mode S Transponders. This AC provides information for Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, 121, 125, 129, and 135 operators; and o ther aviation organizations regarding standard means acceptable to the FAA to establish and ensure continued compliance with 14 CFR as related to ACAS. This information is intended to promote timely and comprehensive program implementation, to encourage development of standard practices for the application of ACAS, and to provide for suitable followup for ACAS events. ACAS does not alter nor diminish the responsibility or authority of a flightcrew to ensure a safe flight. ACAS alone does not ensure safe separation in every case. The contents of this document do not have the force and effect of law and are not meant to bind the public in any way, and the document is intended only to provide information to the public regarding existing requirements under the law or agency policies.
R obert M. Ruiz for Lawrence Fields Executive Director, Flight Standards Service
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CONTENTS Paragraph Page
Chapter 1. General1-1
1.1 Purpose of This Advisory Circular (AC)1-1
1.2 Audience1-1
1.3 Where You Can Find This AC1-1
1.4 What This AC Cancels1-1
1.5 Summary of Changes1-2
1.6 AC Feedback Form1-2
Chapter 2. ACAS Description and Operation2-1
2.1 ACAS Description2-1
2.2 ACAS Types2-1
2.3 ACAS II Variants2-1
2.4 Active Surveillance2-2
2.5 Passive Surveillance2-2
2.6 Levels of Protection2-3
2.7 Advisory Thresholds2-5
2.8 Types of ACAS RAs2-6
2.9 Traffic Display2-10
2.10 Examples of ACAS II Controls2-15
2.11 ACAS Limitations2-18
2.12 ACAS Failures and Anomalies2-19
2.13 ACAS II Inhibits2-20
Chapter 3. F lightcrew Responsibilities3-1
3.1 Flightcrew Considerations3-1
3.2 TA Response3-3
3.3 RA Response3-3
3.4 ATC Clearances and Instructions3-8
3.5 Communicating an RA to ATC3-9
Chapter 4. ACAS Reports4-1
4.1 Pilot Reports4-1
4.2 FAA Response to Pilot Reports of ACAS Events4-2
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4.3 Manufacturer Reports4-2
Chapter 5. Operator Responsibilities5-1
5.1 Operational Approval5-1
Chapter 6. Foreign C arriers6-1
6.1 General Requirements6-1
6.2 ACAS Transponder Requirements6-1
6.3 ACAS Approval for Foreign Air Carriers6-1
6.4 ACAS II RA Reporting Requirements6-1
6.5 Standardization6-1
Appendix A. Ad ministrative InformationA-1
Appendix B. Sa mple ACAS Ground and Flight Training ProgramB-1
Appendix C. Saf ety Management System (SMS) Considerations for ACAS II TA-ONLY
Mode OperationsC-1
Appendix D. ACAS Resolution Advisory (RA) ReportD-1
List of Figures F igure 2-1. Resolution Advisory/Vertical Speed Indicator
(round dial vertical speed indicator)2-14
Figure 2-2. In tegrated Vertical Speed Indicator Tape on a Primary Flight Display2-14
Figure 2-3. P itch Cues on the Primary Flight Display2-15
Figure 2-4. E xamples of ACAS II Controls2-16
List of Tables T
able 2-1. Collision Avoidance System Nomenclature2-2
Table 2-2. L evels of Protection2-4
Table 2-3. T CAS II Advisory Thresholds2-5
Table 2-4. R esolution Advisories, TCAS II Version 7.1 and ACAS Xa2-9
Table 2-5. T raffic Display Symbology Examples2-12
Table 2-6. A CAS Status and Failure Indication Examples2-19
Table 3-1. In itial Pitch Adjustment Response to a Resolution Advisory
(Based on a Transport Category Airplane)3-5
1-1 CHAPTER 1. GENERAL
1.1 Purpose of This Advisory Circular (AC). This AC provides an acceptable means, but not the only means, to address operational use of Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS) in compliance with Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, 121, 125, 129, and 135 requirements. Title 14 CFR uses the term Collision Avoidance System (CAS) or Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) to describe what Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations (49 CFR) and the international community has named ACAS. Other traffic awareness systems, such as Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) Traffic Advisory System (ATAS), are not covered in this AC. CAS for unmanned aircraft, including Remain Well Clear (RWC) and Detect and Avoid (DAA) systems, are not covered in this AC.
1.1.1 This AC is not mandatory and does not constitute a regulation. However, if you use the means described in this AC, you should follow it in all important respects. The term “must” is used to indicate mandatory requirements when following the guidance in this AC. The terms “should” and “recommend” are used when guidance is recommended, but not required, to comply with this AC. The contents of this document do not have the force and effect of law and are not meant to bind the public in any way, and the document is intended only to provide information to the public regarding existing requirements under the law or agency policies.
1.2 Audience. This AC describes the ACAS operational approval process, acceptable methods for ACAS training, acceptable programs for maintenance, operational policies for ACAS use, appropriate actions for ACAS events, and criteria for foreign operator use of ACAS in U.S. airspace. This AC applies to:
• Air carriers operating under 14 CFR parts 121 and 135 and other organizations conducting air carrier training (e.g., training centers or aircraft manufacturers);
• Title 14 CFR part 91 subpart K (part 91K) fractional ownership operations;
• Operations of large airplanes under 14 CFR part 125;
• Foreign air carriers conducting operations in U.S. airspace under 14 CFR part 129;
• Title 14 CFR part 142 training centers;
• Aircraft operating under 14 CFR part 91 appendix G; and
• ADS-B Out equipment requirements where the operator chooses to install an ACAS.
1.3 Where You Can Find This AC. You can find this AC on the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) website at https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_cir culars and the Dynamic Regulatory System (DRS) at https://drs.faa.gov.
1.4 What This AC Cancels. AC 120-55C, Air Carrier Operational Approval and Use of TCAS II, dated February 23, 2011, is canceled.
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1.5 Summary of Changes. This AC includes the following changes:
• Defines TCAS and ACAS;
• Incorporates information from FAA Booklet HQ-111358, Introduction to TCAS II Version 7.1; and International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Doc 9863, Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) Manual;
• Incorporates ACAS II changes, including ACAS Xa and ACAS Xa with Xo;
• Addresses minimizing TA-ONLY mode operation to emphasize ACAS II operation in Traffic Advisory (TA)/Resolution Advisory (RA) mode to the maximum extent feasible while airborne; and
• Incorporates Safety Management System (SMS) guidance and ACAS II operating features.
1.6 AC Feedback Form. For your convenience, the AC Feedback Form is the last page of this AC. Note any deficiencies found, clarifications needed, or suggested improvements regarding the contents of this AC on the Feedback Form.
2-1 CHAPTER 2. ACAS DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION
2.1 ACAS Description. ACAS was developed as a safety-enhancing system to reduce the likelihood of midair collisions between aircraft. ACAS is a family of airborne devices that functions independently of the ground-based Air Traffic Control (ATC) system and provides collision avoidance for a broad spectrum of aircraft types. ACAS iterations include Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) I, TCAS II, and ACAS Xa. TCAS I and II differ primarily by their advisory capability, with TCAS II including recommended vertical maneuvers. ACAS Xa was developed as an evolutionary enhancement to TCAS II version 7.1. From a flightcrew perspective, ACAS Xa provides the same collision avoidance prevention as TCAS II but is designed to improve airborne collision risk mitigation while reducing unwanted Resolution Advisories (RA). In this AC, TCAS I will be referred to as ACAS I. TCAS II and ACAS Xa will be referred to as ACAS II unless there is a need to specify the iteration to show the changes between systems (e.g., TCAS II has limitations that are not present in ACAS Xa).
2.2 ACAS Types.
2.2.1 ACAS I provides Traffic Advisories (TA) that indicate on a display the bearing, range, and altitude relative to own-ship of nearby aircraft with an operating transponder to assist the flightcrew in the visual acquisition of what is referred to as an “intruder aircraft.”
2.2.2 ACAS II provides both TAs for intruder aircraft and RAs for what is referred to as “threat aircraft.” RAs are recommended vertical maneuvers, or vertical maneuver restrictions that maintain or increase the vertical separation between aircraft to mitigate the risk of airborne collision.
2.2.3 ACAS III is in development and will incorporate RAs with vertical and horizontal maneuvers for collision avoidance.
2.3 ACAS II Variants.
2.3.1 With the introduction of ACAS Xa, the FAA now permits four variants of ACAS II in U.S. airspace: TCAS II version 6.04A Enhanced, TCAS II version 7.0, TCAS II version 7.1, and ACAS Xa including optional ACAS Xo features. If an aircraft has an ACAS II installed, it must be TCAS II version 7.0, TCAS II version 7.1, or ACAS Xa to operate within Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) airspace. Operators conducting maintenance on ACAS units should consider upgrading to the latest version of ACAS. Operators flying outside of U.S. territorial airspace are advised to ensure that appropriate ACAS software updates are incorporated for compatibility with oceanic and international equipage and operation standards. International requirements differ by type of operation, type of aircraft, and airspace entry requirements. Refer to documents of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) of the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) with jurisdiction of the airspace to be flown for more information.
2.3.2 A new family of systems called Airborne Collision Avoidance System X (ACAS X) was developed as the next evolution of collision avoidance to continue to be effective in
2-2 changing airspace, as well as to extend Collision Avoidance System (CAS) usage to new entrants. ACAS X adds versatility to allow for installation on other aircraft types, reduces advisories, and reduces 1030/1090-megahertz (MHz) spectrum saturation. This AC will be limited to the ACAS X variants known as ACAS Xa and Xo. ACAS Xo is ACAS Xa with added capability for certain operations (e.g., Closely Spaced Parallel Operations (CSPO)). See Table 2-1.
Table 2-1. Collision Avoidance System Nomenclature Type Iteration Version TSO ACAS I TCAS I N/A C118a
ACAS II
TCAS II TCAS II v 6.04A Enhanced C119a TCAS II v 7.0 C119b TCAS II v 7.1 C119c TCAS II v 7.1 w/ HS C119d–e
ACAS II ACAS Xa C219a ACAS Xa w/ Xo options C219a ACAS III TBD In development TBD
2.4 Active Surveillance. ACAS, independent of any ground inputs, performs surveillance to provide the bearing, range, and altitude of nearby aircraft relative to own-ship. ACAS will receive squitters (nonsolicited data messages) from nearby aircraft operating a Mode Select (Mode S) transponder and send discrete interrogations to the individual transponders on a frequency of 1030 MHz. The transponders of the nearby aircraft respond to the interrogation using a 1090 MHz transmission. The reply from the interrogation is used to determine range and bearing of the aircraft from own-ship. If altitude reporting is included in the interrogation response, the ACAS processor is provided the pressure altitude of the aircraft (the height above a Standard Datum Plane (SDP), a theoretical level where the weight of the atmosphere is 29.92 inches of mercury (inHg)/1013.25 millibars (mb)). ACAS surveillance of nearby aircraft operating Mode A transponders uses responses to an all-call interrogation. All nearby Mode A transponders reply to the all-call interrogation. Due to the nondiscrete nature of Mode A transponder interrogation, ACAS uses various techniques to screen out overlapping replies. ACAS interrogates transponders within a nominal range of at least 14 nautical miles (NM). Surveillance range can be reduced in geographic areas with a large number of ground interrogators and/or aircraft operating ACAS II. ACAS will interrogate transponders that are closer to own-ship more frequently than aircraft that are farther away.
2.5 Passive Surveillance. ACAS Xa/Xo and some TCAS II versions incorporate passive surveillance utilizing Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) Out, and optionally Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Rebroadcast (ADS-R), information.
Passive surveillance reduces the amount of 1030/1090 MHz frequency congestion, as the
2-3 ACAS aircraft will interrogate the other aircraft less frequently until the range of the aircraft decreases to a predetermined distance, and ACAS II then switches to active surveillance. This combination between active and passive surveillance is known as Hybrid Surveillance (HS). ACAS Xa/Xo takes advantage of the improved accuracy of ADS-B surveillance by using ADS-B reports that have been validated by active interrogations to generate ACAS advisories. ACAS II does not use Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) 978 MHz for HS, and a UAT-only aircraft will not generate a TA or an RA. ACAS II does use ADS-B from 1090 MHz Extended Squitter (ES) for HS, and ACAS Xa may use validated 1090 MHz ADS-B for TA generation. RAs are generated only with active surveillance of an aircraft with an altitude reporting transponder.
2.6 Levels of Protection. The level of protection provided by ACAS II-equipped aircraft operating in TA/RA mode depends on the type of equipment that the other aircraft is equipped and operating, including mode selection. See Table 2-2, Levels of Protection.
2.6.1 Aircraft without an operating transponder will not be shown on the traffic display (unless own-ship is equipped with ADS-B In, and the other aircraft is broadcasting ADS-B Out), and there will be no advisories generated for such aircraft.
2.6.1.1 If own-ship is equipped with ACAS Xa with the ADS-B Only TA-ONLY (AOTO) option, and the other aircraft is equipped with ADS-B Out (1090 MHz, not 978 MHz UAT) but does not have an operational transponder. The AOTO option allows aircraft with operating ADS-B Out without an operating transponder to be displayed and to generate a TA. RAs will not be generated for this aircraft. Not all ACAS Xa systems include this functionality. Refer to the Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM) or Aircraft Flight Manual Supplement (AFMS) for details.
2.6.1.2 Some aircraft may be equipped with both ACAS II and ADS-B Traffic Advisory System (ATAS). ATAS may provide an advisory similar to a TA based on ADS-B Only. ATAS does not provide RAs. Refer to the AFM or AFMS for details.
2.6.1.3 If own-ship transponder is switched off or fails, own-ship ACAS II switches to standby, and own-ship may not be detected by ATC secondary surveillance radar or other aircraft operating ACAS.
2.6.1.4 Pilots of Visual Flight Rules (VFR) aircraft are advised to operate an altitude reporting transponder in all airspace classes to permit the aircraft operating ACAS to generate TAs and RAs, as appropriate.
2.6.2 An aircraft operating a transponder with altitude reporting will allow for the generation of an RA in an aircraft operating ACAS II.
2.6.3 An aircraft operating a transponder without altitude reporting, also known as non-altitude reporting aircraft, will not cause an RA to be generated regardless of actual collision hazard. Non-altitude reporting aircraft may cause a TA to be generated, but the data tag for the aircraft will be omitted from the traffic display.
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2.6.3.1 If own-ship is above a pressure altitude of 15,500 feet, the non-altitude reporting aircraft is filtered out. In this case, non-altitude reporting aircraft will neither be displayed nor generate an advisory.
2.6.3.2 If own-ship altitude reporting is switched off or fails, own-ship will not be fully protected and may not be depicted on the traffic display of other aircraft operating ACAS. If the pressure altitude data fed to the transponder is incorrect, the error will be propagated in other aircraft ACAS and ATC systems. Consequently, ATC will not know the actual altitude of the aircraft, and ACAS advisories may be generated incorrectly, or ACAS may not generate advisories when needed. Flightcrews are advised to verify that the altimeter and transponder system has been correctly maintained and inspected and to monitor transponder operation, including altitude reporting.
2.6.4 If both aircraft are equipped with ACAS II, and both aircraft are operating in TA/RA mode, both aircraft can generate a coordinated RA that generates complementary vertical maneuvers or lack of maneuvers (e.g., one ACAS II unit generates a climb RA and the other a descend RA).
2.6.5 ACAS II does not generate horizontal maneuvers. This functionality is planned for ACAS III systems.
Table 2-2. Levels of Protection Own-Ship (equipment and operating mode) Other Aircraft (equipment and operating mode) ACAS II (TA-ONLY) or
ACAS I ACAS II (TA/RA) No Transponder/ Transponder Off No ACAS protection No ACAS protection No Transponder, but Transmitting 1090 MHz ADS-B Out ADS-B Only TA-ONLY (ACAS Xa only) ADS-B Only TA-ONLY (ACAS Xa only) Non-Altitude Reporting TA (no protection above 15,500 feet pressure altitude) TA (no protection above 15,500 feet pressure altitude) Transponder with Altitude Reporting TA TA and RA ACAS II (TA-ONLY) or ACAS I TA TA and RA ACAS II in TA/RA Mode TA TA and coordinated RA
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2.7 Advisory Thresholds.
2.7.1 TCAS II primarily uses the measure of the time to the Closest Point of Approach (CPA) rather than distance to determine when to generate a TA or an RA.
2.7.2 Time to CPA is also indicated by the Greek symbol tau (τ). Tau thresholds (trigger points for the generation of an advisory) vary with the altitude of own-ship, with less time to CPA at lower altitudes. The TA tau threshold varies from 20 to 48 seconds before the projected CPA, and the RA tau threshold varies from 15 to 35 seconds.
2.7.3 At close ranges and slow closure rates, TCAS II uses a fixed horizontal distance threshold called Distance Modification (DMOD) at or less than the relative altitude (altitude difference between own-ship and another aircraft) threshold called Z-axis Threshold (ZTHR) to determine when to generate a TA or an RA. DMOD thresholds vary with altitude of own-ship, with less distance at lower altitudes.
2.7.3.1 Fixed distance advisories are more likely to occur during CSPO, especially at higher elevation airports, where aircraft are in a higher Sensitivity Level (SL) during approach.
2.7.4 SLs are based on the altitude of the aircraft. The higher the altitude of the aircraft operating TCAS II is, the greater the time to CPA and larger the fixed distance thresholds (horizontal and vertical) become. ACAS Xa does not use SLs. ACAS Xa was designed to provide advisory thresholds similar to TCAS II across these altitude bands. See Table 2-3.
Table 2-3. TCAS II Advisory Thresholds Seconds to CPA (tau) DMOD (NM/feet) ZTHR (feet) Own Altitude (feet) TA RA TA RA TA RA 0–500 AGL N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 500–1000 AGL 20 N/A 0.3/1822 N/A 850 N/A 1000–2350 AGL 25 15 0.33/2005 0.20/1215 850 600 2350–5000 SDP 30 20 0.48/2916 0.35/2126 850 600 5000–10000 SDP 40 25 0.75/4557 0.55/3341 850 600 10000–20000 SDP 45 30 1.00/6076 0.80/4861 850 600 20000–42000 SDP 48 35 1.30/7898 1.10/6684 850 700 Above 42000 SDP 48 35 1.30/7898 1.10/6684 1200 800
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2.7.5 ACAS Xa is designed to provide advisory thresholds that are like TCAS II, but ACAS Xa does not directly use time to CPA (tau), DMOD, or ZTHR. ACAS Xa uses an alternative risk-based approach for RA generation. ACAS Xa generates advisories based on perceived risk and filters out many potential RAs where the estimated risk is low.
2.7.5.1 ACAS Xo is an option on an ACAS Xa platform that has additional equipment and features intended for aircraft to desensitize RA thresholds in certain airport environments.
2.7.5.1.1 ACAS Xo provides a Designated No Alert (DNA) capability intended for use in visual separation procedures, such as visual approach procedures to closely spaced parallel runways that are likely to trigger unwanted RAs. TA and RA thresholds are suppressed for a single designated aircraft while full ACAS II TA/RA mode protection is provided against all other aircraft. The flightcrew visually acquires the traffic within 6 NM laterally before designating it as a DNA aircraft. If there is a multiple threat encounter involving the designated aircraft, DNA mode will suspend automatically. If the designated aircraft diverges from own aircraft by more than 6 NM, the aircraft will be undesignated.
2.7.5.1.2 The ACAS Xo CSPO-3000 function provides advisory threshold logic appropriate for use in Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) during CSPO down to a runway centerline spacing of 3,000 feet and below a pressure altitude of 14,000 feet. When enabled, CSPO-3000 will still provide TAs and RAs on blundering designated traffic. CSPO-3000 mode is unavailable when own-ship is above a pressure altitude of 14,000 feet, and any time in TA-ONLY mode.
2.8 Types of ACAS RAs.
2.8.1 RA Generation. TCAS II uses projected separation at CPA based on tau, DMOD, and ZTHR to determine RA guidance. The RA is intended to provide adequate vertical miss distance from the threat aircraft while generally minimizing the disturbance to the existing flight path.
2.8.1.1 ACAS Xa threat logic estimates the potential collision risk based on the relative position and velocity of nearby aircraft and generates an RA when warranted. ACAS Xa provides the same advisories as TCAS II with some small variations in the aural annunciations (e.g., Maintain Vertical Speed RAs changed to the corresponding climb or descend advisory).
2.8.1.2 ACAS Xa is unchanged from TCAS II with respect to low altitude inhibits, handling of bearingless and non-altitude reporting aircraft, and interaction with higher priority alerts (e.g., stall warning, Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS) “Pull Up” alert, or windshear warning).
2.8.1.3 ACAS Xa will generate RAs less often when compared to TCAS II while maintaining an equivalent airborne collision risk mitigation.
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2.8.2 Multiple Threat Encounters. ACAS II is designed to handle multiple threat encounters (encounters where more than one threat is active at the same time). ACAS II will attempt to resolve these types of encounters by selecting a single or composite (initial and subsequent) RA that will provide adequate vertical separation from each of the threat aircraft.
2.8.3 P reventive or Corrective . RAs can be classified as preventive or corrective. Corrective RAs require a change in vertical speed while preventive RAs do not. Preventive RAs instead generate restrictions of vertical speeds.
2.8.4 C oordinated RAs . ACAS II uses explicit coordination, meaning that in an encounter where two ACAS II-equipped aircraft operating in TA/RA mode declare each other a threat, ACAS II will generate RAs based on a real-time exchange of the sense (vertical direction) of the RA. In coordinated ACAS II encounters, nominally, one aircraft will declare the other aircraft to be a threat slightly earlier than the other. The first aircraft that declares the other to be a threat verifies that a coordination message has not been received from the other aircraft, generates an RA based on the encounter geometry, and transmits an intent message (vertical direction of the generated RA) through the Mode S transponder to the other aircraft. The second aircraft, having already received an intent message from the first aircraft, will generate a complementary RA. The complementary RA generated is transmitted back to the other aircraft. Occasionally, the two aircraft declare each other as threats simultaneously, and both aircraft will generate an RA independently based on the encounter geometry. There is a chance that noncomplementary RAs are generated. When this happens, as a tiebreaking function, the ACAS II in the aircraft with the higher 24-bit Mode S transponder address will detect the selection of a noncomplementary RA and generate an RA in the opposite direction.
ACAS II versions 7.0 and higher added the capability for ACAS II to issue RA reversals in coordinated encounters if the encounter geometry changes after the initial RA is issued.
2.8.5 In itial RAs . When ACAS II declares an aircraft a threat, ACAS II will check to see if a coordination message has been received from another ACAS II aircraft. If a coordination message is received, ACAS II will exclude noncomplementary RA possibilities. If a coordination message is not received, ACAS II logic is free to select an RA sense (vertical direction) and strength (the degree of restriction placed on the vertical flight path or the magnitude of the altitude rate change) that best fits the encounter. ACAS II is designed to generate the RA sense and strength that is the least disruptive to the existing flight path, while still providing the desired vertical miss distance (vertical separation).
ACAS II logic prefers to generate an RA with a vertical path that will not cross through the vertical path of the threat aircraft. If ACAS II computes that crossing the vertical path of the threat aircraft is required to obtain the desired vertical miss distance, the generated RA will announce, “Crossing” (e.g., “Climb, Crossing Climb”).
2.8.5.1 TCAS II utilizes the range and altitude tracks of the threat aircraft to model the expected threat aircraft flight path from its present position to CPA. Then, an RA sense is selected that maximizes vertical miss distance. The RA