U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Advisory Circular Subject: Aircraft Wake Turbulence Date: 2/10/14 Initiated by: AFS-400 AC No: 90-23G Change:
1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) presents basic information on wake vortex behavior, alerts pilots to the hazards of aircraft wake turbulence, and recommends operational procedures to avoid wake turbulence encounters.
2. CANCELLATION. AC 90-23F, Aircraft Wake Turbulence, dated February 20, 2002, is canceled.
3. INTRODUCTION. Every aircraft in flight generates wake vortices. These disturbances are caused by a pair of counter-rotating vortices trailing from the wing tips in cruise and nominally from the outboard edge of the outboard flap on approach and landing. The vortices from an aircraft can pose a hazard to encountering aircraft. For instance, the wake of larger aircraft can impose rolling moments that exceed the roll control authority of smaller encountering aircraft.
Further, turbulence generated by vortices can damage aircraft components and equipment as well as cause personal injuries. Pilots must learn to envision the location and movements of the vortices generated by other aircraft and to adjust their flightpath accordingly.
4. VORTEX GENERATION. Lift is generated by the creation of a pressure differential over the wing surfaces. The lowest pressure occurs over the upper wing surface and the highest pressure under the wing. This pressure differential triggers the rollup of the airflow aft of the wing resulting in swirling air masses trailing downstream of the wing. After the rollup is complete, the wake consists of two counter-rotating cylindrical vortices (see Figure 1, The
Par 4 Page 2 Rollup Process). Most of the energy is within a few feet of the center of each vortex, but pilots should avoid a region within about 100 feet of the vortex core.
FIGURE 1. THE ROLLUP PROCESS
5. VORTEX STRENGTH.
a. Terminal Area. The strength of the vortex is governed by the weight, speed, and wing shape and span of the generating aircraft. The extension of flaps or other wing configuring devices will change the vortex characteristics of an aircraft. However, as the factors which vary most significantly by phase of flight are weight and speed, the vortex strength increases proportionately with an increase in aircraft operating weight or decrease in aircraft speed. Peak vortex speeds up to almost 300 feet per second have been recorded. The greatest vortex strength occurs when the generating aircraft is heavy-slow-clean since the turbulence from a “dirty” aircraft configuration hastens wake decay.
b. En Route. Air density is also a factor in wake strength. Even though the speeds are higher in cruise at high altitude, the reduced air density may result in wake strength comparable to that in the terminal area. In addition, for a given separation distance, the higher speeds in cruise result in less time for the wake to decay before being encountered by another aircraft.
6. INDUCED ROLL.
a. Roll Control Capability. The most likely encountered hazard is an induced rolling moment that can exceed the roll control capability of the encountering aircraft. In flight experiments, aircraft have been intentionally flown directly through trailing vortex cores of larger aircraft. It shows that the capability of an aircraft to counteract the roll imposed by the wake vortex primarily depends on the wingspan and counter control responsiveness of the encountering aircraft.
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b. Counter Control. Counter control is usually effective and induced roll minimal in cases where the wingspan and ailerons of the encountering aircraft extend beyond the rotational flow field of the vortex. It is more difficult for aircraft with short wingspans (relative to the vortex-generating aircraft) to counter the imposed roll induced by vortex flow (see Figure 2, Induced Roll). Pilots of short-span aircraft, even of the high performance type, must be especially alert to vortex encounters. The wake of larger aircraft requires the respect of all pilots (see Figure 3, Wake vs. Aircraft Size).
FIGURE 2. INDUCED ROLL
FIGURE 3. WAKE VS. AIRCRAFT SIZE
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7. VORTEX BEHAVIOR. Trailing vortices have certain behavioral characteristics which can help pilots visualize the wake location and movement and take appropriate avoidance actions.
a. Vortex Generation. An aircraft generates vortices from the moment it rotates on takeoff to touchdown, since trailing vortices are a by-product of wing lift. Prior to takeoff or landing, pilots should note the rotation or touchdown point of the preceding aircraft (see Figure 4, Touchdown Points of Preceding and Following Aircraft).
FIGURE 4. TOUCHDOWN POINTS OF PRECEDING AND FOLLOWING AIRCRAFT
b. Vortex Circulation. The vortex circulation is outward, upward, and around the wing tips when viewed from either ahead or behind the aircraft. Tests with large aircraft have shown that the vortices remain spaced slightly less than a wingspan apart, drifting with the wind at altitudes greater than a wingspan from the ground. If persistent vortex turbulence is encountered, a slight change of altitude or lateral position (preferably upwind) will likely provide a flightpath clear of the turbulence.
c. Vertical Movement. Flight tests have shown that at higher altitude the vortices from large aircraft sink at a rate of several hundred feet per minute (fpm), slowing their descent and diminishing in strength with time and distance behind the wake-generating aircraft (see Figure 5, Descent of Vortices from Large Aircraft). Atmospheric turbulence hastens decay. Pilots should fly at or above the preceding aircraft’s flightpath, altering course as necessary, to avoid the area behind and below the generating aircraft. It is also important that pilots of larger aircraft fly on
Par 7 Page 5 the glideslope (GS), not above it, whenever possible to minimize vortex exposure to other aircraft. The worst case atmospheric conditions are light winds, low atmospheric turbulence, and low stratification (stable atmosphere). In these atmospheric conditions, primarily in en route operations, vortices from Heavy and especially Super aircraft can descend more than 1,000 feet.
In rare cases, wake turbulence can rise in an updraft or when it bounces off of a strong inversion layer where the strong inversion layer acts like the ground.
FIGURE 5. DESCENT OF VORTICES FROM LARGE AIRCRAFT
d. Lateral Movement. When the vortices of large aircraft sink close to the ground (within 100 to 200 feet), they tend to move laterally over the ground at a speed of 2 or 3 knots at an altitude of slightly less than one-half the wingspan (see Figure 6, Movement of Vortices from Low-Flying Large Aircraft).
FIGURE 6. MOVEMENT OF VORTICES FROM LOW-FLYING LARGE AIRCRAFT
e. Wind. A crosswind will decrease the lateral movement of the upwind vortex and increase the movement of the downwind vortex. Thus, a light wind with a cross-runway component of 1 to 5 knots (depending on conditions) could result in the upwind vortex remaining in the touchdown zone (TDZ) for a period of time and hasten the drift of the downwind vortex away from the runway (possibly toward an adjacent runway if one exists). Similarly, a tailwind condition can move the vortices of the preceding aircraft forward into the final approach and
Par 7 Page 6 TDZ. A light quartering tailwind requires maximum caution, as it presents a worst case scenario where a wake vortex could more likely be present along the final approach and TDZ. Pilots should be alert to larger aircraft upwind from their approach and takeoff flightpaths. See Figure 7, Effect of 3-Knot Crosswind on Vortices from Low Flying Aircraft, and Figure 8, Effect of 6-Knot Crosswind on Vortices from Low Flying Aircraft.
FIGURE 7. EFFECT OF 3-KNOT CROSSWIND ON VORTICES FROM LOW FLYING
AIRCRAFT
FIGURE 8. EFFECT OF 6-KNOT CROSSWIND ON VORTICES FROM LOW FLYING
AIRCRAFT
8. VORTEX AVOIDANCE PROCEDURES.
a. Air Traffic Control (ATC) Responsibilities. Air traffic controllers apply procedures for separating instrument flight rules (IFR) aircraft that include required wake turbulence separations. However, if a pilot accepts a clearance to visually follow a preceding aircraft, the pilot accepts responsibility for both separation and wake turbulence avoidance. The controllers will also provide a Wake Turbulence Cautionary Advisory to pilots of visual flight rules (VFR) aircraft, with whom they are in communication and on whom, in the controller’s opinion, wake turbulence may have an adverse effect. This advisory includes the position, altitude and direction of flight of larger aircraft followed by the phrase “CAUTION–WAKE TURBULENCE.” After issuing the caution for wake turbulence, the air traffic controllers generally do not provide additional information to the following aircraft.
Par 8 Page 7 NOTE: Whether or not a warning or information has been given, the pilot is expected to adjust aircraft operations and flightpath as necessary to preclude wake encounters.
NOTE: When any doubt exists about maintaining safe separation distances between aircraft to avoid wake turbulence, pilots should ask ATC for updates on separation distance and groundspeed.
b. Departing Behind a Larger Aircraft—Same Runway. When departing behind a larger aircraft on the same runway, pilots should:
(1) Note the larger aircraft’s rotation point and rotate prior to the larger aircraft’s rotation point.
(2) Continue climb above the larger aircraft’s climb path until turning clear of the wake (see Figure 9, Departing Same Runway Behind a Larger Aircraft).
(3) Avoid subsequent headings which will cross below and behind the larger aircraft (see Figure 10, Critical Takeoff Situation and Crossing Departure Courses).
(4) Be alert for any critical takeoff situation which could lead to a vortex encounter.
FIGURE 9. DEPARTING SAME RUNWAY BEHIND A LARGER AIRCRAFT
c. Intersection Takeoffs. When conducting intersection takeoffs, pilots should note the larger aircraft’s rotation point and rotate prior to the larger aircraft’s rotation point. Also, be alert to adjacent large aircraft operations, particularly upwind of your runway. If intersection takeoff clearance is received, avoid a flightpath which will cross below a larger aircraft’s flightpath.
d. Departing or Landing After a Larger Aircraft Executing a Low/Missed Approach or Touch-and-Go Landing. Because vortices settle and move laterally near the ground, the vortex hazard may exist along the runway and in your flightpath after a larger aircraft has executed a low/missed approach or a touch-and-go landing, particularly in light quartering wind conditions. You should ensure that an interval of at least 2 minutes has elapsed before your takeoff or landing (and at least 3 minutes when operating behind super aircraft).
Par 8 Page 8 FIGURE 10. CRITICAL TAKEOFF SITUATION AND CROSSING DEPARTURE
COURSES
e. En Route VFR (500 Feet Separation). Pilots should avoid flight below and behind a larger aircraft’s flightpath. If a larger aircraft is observed above on the same track (meeting or overtaking), adjust your position laterally, preferably upwind.
f. Landing Behind a Larger Aircraft—Same Runway. When landing behind a larger aircraft on the same runway stay at or above the larger aircraft’s final approach flightpath. Note the touchdown point and land beyond it (see Figure 11, Avoidance Procedures Landing Behind Larger Aircraft on the Same Runway). See paragraph 11 for special procedures applicable to large, heavy, and super aircraft.
Par 8 Page 9 FIGURE 11. AVOIDANCE PROCEDURES LANDING BEHIND LARGER AIRCRAFT
ON THE SAME RUNWAY
g. Landing Behind a Larger Aircraft—On a Parallel Runway Closer Than 2,500 Feet Apart. When landing behind a larger aircraft on a parallel runway closer than 2,500 feet apart (Figure 12), pilots need to consider the relationship between the runway threshold locations, the relative GS descent paths/locations and possible vortex drift onto your runway (see paragraph 12 for aircraft classification definitions). If you have visual contact with the larger aircraft landing on the parallel runway, whenever possible, stay at or above the larger aircraft’s final approach flightpath. Note its touchdown point. Be aware that the aircraft descending to the more distant threshold will generally be slightly higher depending on the amount of threshold stagger. See Figure 12, Avoidance Procedure Landing on Parallel Runways Closer than 2,500 Feet.
Par 8 Page 10 FIGURE 12. AVOIDANCE PROCEDURE LANDING ON PARALLEL RUNWAYS CLOSER THAN 2,500 FEET
h. Landing Behind a Larger Aircraft—Crossing Runway. When landing behind a larger aircraft on a crossing runway, pilots should cross above the larger aircraft’s flightpath (see Figure 13, Avoidance Procedure for Landing Behind Larger Aircraft That is Using a Crossing Runway (No Wind)).
FIGURE 13. AVOIDANCE PROCEDURE FOR LANDING BEHIND LARGER
AIRCRAFT THAT IS USING A CROSSING RUNWAY (NO WIND)
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i. Landing Behind a Departing Larger Aircraft—Same Runway. When landing behind a departing larger aircraft on the same runway, pilots should note the larger aircraft’s rotation point and land well before the rotation point (see Figure 14, Avoidance When Landing Behind a Departing Aircraft on the Same Runway).
FIGURE 14. AVOIDANCE WHEN LANDING BEHIND A DEPARTING AIRCRAFT ON
THE SAME RUNWAY
j. Landing Behind a Departing Larger Aircraft—Crossing Runway. When landing behind a departing larger aircraft on a crossing runway, pilots should note the larger aircraft’s rotation point. If rotation is past the intersection, continue the approach and land before the intersection. If the larger aircraft rotates prior to the intersection, avoid flight below the larger aircraft’s flightpath. Abandon the approach unless a landing is ensured well before reaching the intersection (see Figure 15, Avoidance for Landing Behind Departing Larger Aircraft on a Crossing Runway When Rotation Point is Past the Intersection, and Figure 16, Avoidance for Landing When Larger Departing Aircraft Rotates Prior to the Intersection).
Par 8 Page 12 FIGURE 15. AVOIDANCE FOR LANDING BEHIND DEPARTING LARGER
AIRCRAFT ON A CROSSING RUNWAY WHEN ROTATION POINT IS PAST THE
INTERSECTION
FIGURE 16. AVOIDANCE FOR LANDING WHEN LARGER DEPARTING AIRCRAFT
ROTATES PRIOR TO THE INTERSECTION
9. VORTEX ENCOUNTER GUIDANCE.
a. Probability of Hazard. A wake encounter is not necessarily hazardous. It can be one or more jolts with varying severity depending upon the direction of the encounter (intercept angle),