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(3) Fault Detection Alert. If the GPS displays a fault detection alert (failed satellite), the pilot may choose to continue to operate using the GPS-generated position if they actively monitor the current estimate of position uncertainty displayed on the GPS from the FDE algorithm. If this number exceeds 10 NM or is not available, the pilot should immediately maintain heading and altitude until they exclude the failed satellite and report degraded navigation capability to ATC in accordance with § 91.187.
(4) Validation Tests Are Required. Such tests may consist of a single flight or series of flights. The following are references:
• Sections 121.93 and 121.113.
• Section 135.145.
• FAA Order 8900.1, Volume 3, Chapter 29, Section 8, Validation Test Requirements, current edition.
j. GPS in Lieu of ADF or DME. You may substitute an approved GPS navigation system for an ADF and DME receiver, provided you can call up facility or fix coordinates from the current GPS airborne database. Retrieve waypoints, fixes, intersections, and facility locations used for these operations from the current GPS airborne database. If you cannot retrieve the required positions from the airborne database, the substitution of GPS for ADF and DME will not receive authorization.
• For all operators, using GPS in lieu of DME does not preclude any equipage requirements of the applicable regulations. To provide navigation performance equivalent to ADF or DME avionics, the GPS navigation systems must have proper certification, installation, and authorization for use under IFR, as described above.
• This approval does not alter the conditions and requirements for use of GPS when using it to provide lateral course guidance to fly GPS or GPS Area Navigation (RNAV) standard instrument approach procedures.
• For those operations where the operating rules require installation of DME, the operator’s MEL should include provisions for authorizing continued operations using a certified GPS when the installed “DME” is inoperative. Operators in the NAS may receive authorization to use GPS equipment certified for IFR operations in lieu of ADF and DME equipment for the following operations:
• Determining the aircraft position over a DME fix. GPS satisfies § 91.205(e) requirement for DME at and above 24,000 feet MSL (FL 240).
• Flying a DME arc.
• Navigating to/from an NDB/compass locator.
• Determining the aircraft position over an NDB/compass locator.
• Determining the aircraft position over a fix made up of a crossing NDB/compass locator bearing.
• Holding over an NDB/compass locator.
• The ground-based NDB or DME facility may be temporarily out of service.
• For further information on the use of GPS in lieu of DME, refer to the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).
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CHAPTER 11. HELICOPTOR OCEANIC OPERATIONS
11-1. GULF OF MEXICO.
a. Background. Although helicopter operations in the Gulf of Mexico have had an enviable safety record, recent statistics indicate that a significant rise in weather-related accidents has occurred. It is imperative that pilots performing oceanic (offshore) operations do not exceed the minimum weather criteria for visual flight rules (VFR) and instrument flight rules (IFR) flight or the minimum flight altitude parameters for all phases of flight. The operator must comply with all applicable minimum equipment requirements for the operation. Two documents that address issues and requirements for improving rotorcraft operations within the National Airspace System (NAS) are “Rotorcraft Terminal ATC Route Standards” (FAA/RD-90/18) and “Rotorcraft En Route ATC Route Standards” (FAA/RD-90-19). These documents are available to the public through the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Rd., Springfield, Virginia 22151-2103. All operators should obtain these two documents and ensure that crews are familiar with the operating procedures discussed in these documents.
b. Flight in Environmentally Sensitive Areas. Protection of endangered species and the overflight of environmentally sensitive areas are of increasing concern in the Gulf of Mexico.
Infringements by low-flying airplanes and/or rotorcraft operating en route to airways in the Gulf of Mexico or to helidecks can be disruptive to wildlife while over the shore or near the shore.
The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), the current edition of Advisory Circular (AC) 91-36, Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight Near Noise-Sensitive Areas, on VFR sectional maps, and on specially designed maps published by Minerals Management Service (MMS) of the Department of the Interior (DOI) contain guidelines for flights in these areas.
11-2. IFR OFFSHORE OPERATIONS. Any operator that desires to conduct IFR operations in uncontrolled airspace will submit a letter describing the proposed operation to the certificate-holding district office (CHDO). This letter should include which specific routes to fly, the exact location of the destination, the type of aircraft used, the navigation equipment on the aircraft, and the specific Navigational Aids (NAVAID) used at the offshore facility, if any.
a. Offshore Operators. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 offshore operators are to obtain a letter of authorization (LOA) for IFR operations. They will receive the LOA once they meet all certification requirements.
b. FAA Coordination. After reviewing the request, the CHDO will arrange a coordination meeting with the air traffic elements involved (such as the center, approach control, Flight Service Station (FSS), etc.). If a NAVAID exists at the offshore facility, the regional flight procedures branch will have representation at the coordination meeting. If the operator conducts the proposed operations in a region other than that of the CHDO, the CHDO will coordinate with the FSDO having jurisdiction of the geographic area where they conduct operations. The jurisdictional Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) will perform route checks and other required inspections, and forward reports of these inspections to the CHDO. When the operator meets all of the requirements, the CHDO approves the operation and issues operations specifications (OpSpecs) or an LOA.
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11-3. NAVIGATION REQUIREMENTS AND PROCEDURES.
a. Route Requirements. Operators may develop proposed routes using Class I station-referenced NAVAIDs where adequate signal coverage is available. In areas where signal coverage is not available, the operator must provide a suitable means of Class II navigation. The FAA will require a validation test in VFR conditions to ensure that the operator is able to demonstrate adequate navigational performance for the route(s) before granting approval for the use of the route(s).
b. Approval of IFR Operations Using Class I Navigation. Appropriate operating procedures must receive approval from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and be in the operator’s manual. Use of the procedures will receive authorization through a nonstandard OpSpec paragraph that refers to the operator’s manual containing these procedures.
c. Approval of IFR Operations Using Non-Terminal NAVAID Facilities. The operator must submit a written request to the CHDO for a helicopter offshore procedure according to AC 90-80, Approval of Offshore Standard Approach Procedures, Airborne Radar Approaches, and Helicopter En Route Descent Areas, current edition.
d. Extended Over-Water or IFR Operations Equipment. All navigation equipment used in extended over-water or IFR operations must meet 14 CFR part 135, § 135.165(b) requirements. If you obtain positive course guidance for any portion of the route through the use of long-range navigation equipment such as a very low frequency (VLF) or LORAN-C, the aircraft must have two independent receivers for navigation stalled and be operative before receiving approval.
e. Weather Reporting Requirements. A weather reporting facility approved by the National Weather Service (NWS) or the FAA must be present and operable within 10 nautical miles (NM) of the destination. The FAA (with NWS concurrence) may approve a remote source as a deviation from the provisions of § 135.213(b) when the operator is able to demonstrate an adequate level of safety for the proposed operations. The approval for this deviation will be in the OpSpecs.
f. Helicopter En Route Descent Areas (HEDA). An operator that desires to establish a HEDA will submit a written request to its CHDO. If the proposed HEDA is outside the CHDO’s geographic area of responsibility, the CHDO will forward the request to the jurisdictional FSDO.
The letter of request should include the following information:
• A pictorial and/or a written description of the proposed HEDA.
• The means by which the operator establishes positive course guidance.
• Equipment requirements for use in the HEDA.
• Proposed operations and training manual revisions to incorporate HEDAs, if an initial application for approval of a HEDA.
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• The date of first intended use and the proposed length of service for which authorization is sought.
g. HEDA Procedures and Requirements. Prior to granting authorization, the CHDO or jurisdictional FSDO will coordinate with a flight inspection procedures specialist to determine if the proposed HEDA is clear of obstructions and that positive course guidance is available for the entire route, including descent to the lowest authorized altitude (LAA). Aircraft must have all required flight and navigation equipment installed and be operative to utilize the 400-foot minimum.
(1) General. IFR-approved helicopter operators in offshore environments use these procedures to conduct instrument approaches to rigs, platforms or ships that are at least 5 NM offshore in uncontrolled airspace. The helicopter will use the airborne radar approaches (ARA) or offshore standard approach procedures (OSAP) for conducting instrument approaches in this environment.
(2) Approach Approval Procedures. AC 90-80 contains approval guidance, procedures criteria. and a sample training program for offshore instrument approaches. ARA procedures are special instrument approach procedures (IAP) approved under the provisions of the current editions of FAA Order 8260.19, Flight Procedures and Airspace, and FAA Order 8260.3, United States Standards for Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS).
(a) ARA Approval Procedures.
• The FSDO with geographic responsibility for the area in which the operator will conduct the ARA must verify the adequacy of obstacle clearances.
• Operators must demonstrate acceptable performance of en route and IAPs to the CHDO prior to the operator obtaining approval to use these procedures.
• ARAs are on FAA Form 8260-7, Special Instrument Approach Procedures.
• The FAA regional flight inspection and procedures (FIP) staff will inspect ARAs prior to approval by the CHDO. They will make minor changes of rig locations in pen, provided the en route egress point and procedures remain the same and the controlling obstacle does not change. Otherwise, the FIP staff will develop a new procedure.
(b) OSAP Approval Procedures.
• Operators that desire to conduct OSAPs must submit a written request to the CHDO according to the procedures stated in the current edition of AC 90-80.
• The CHDO will evaluate and test the procedures contained in the request for approval.
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• Additionally, the operator’s maintenance and training programs will receive an inspection prior to issuance of the authorization.
• Part 135 operators will receive authorization to conduct OSAPs as part of the OpSpecs.
• Part 91 operators will receive authorization to conduct OSAPs in an LOA.
CHAPTER 12. CREW TRAINING FOR OCEANIC OPERATIONS
12-1. CREW QUALIFICATIONS. In the International Standards and Recommended Practices (ISARP) (Annex 6), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) makes the following stipulations for flights outside the jurisdiction of member states:
• An operator will ensure that all employees, when abroad, know that they must comply with the laws, regulations, and procedures of those states where they conduct operations.
• An operator will ensure that all pilots are familiar with the laws, regulations, and procedures pertinent to the performance of their duties prescribed for the areas traversed, the airports used, and the related air navigation facilities. The operator will ensure that other members of the flightcrew are familiar with these laws, regulations, and procedures that are pertinent to the performance of their respective duties in the operation of the aircraft.
• When the pilot in command (PIC) conducts the operation, he/she must perform the following:
• Comply with the relevant laws, regulations and procedures of the United States.
• Assume responsibility for the operation and safety of the aircraft and for the safety of all persons aboard during flight time.
• If an emergency situation that endangers the safety of the aircraft or persons necessitates action involving a violation of local regulations or procedures, the PIC will notify the appropriate local authorities without delay. If required by the state in which the incident occurs, the PIC will submit a report on any such violation to the appropriate authority of that state. In that event, the PIC will also submit a copy in writing to the FAA Flight Standards National Field Office (FSNFO), Flight Standards Service (AFS)-500. They must submit such reports within 10 days of the incident.
• The PIC will be responsible for notifying the nearest appropriate authority by the quickest available means of any accident involving the airplane resulting in serious injury or death of any person or substantial damage to the airplane or property.
12-2. PILOT AS PIC.
a. PIC Qualifications. An operator must not use a pilot as PIC of an aircraft on a route or route segment for which that pilot does not have qualifications for until that pilot has demonstrated to the operator an adequate knowledge of the following:
• The route flown and the airports used.
• The terrain and minimum safe altitudes.
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• The seasonal meteorological conditions.
• The meteorological, communication, and air traffic facilities, services, and procedures.
• The Search and Rescue (SAR) procedures.
• The navigational facilities and procedures, including any long-range navigation system (LRNS) procedures associated with the planned route.
b. Applicable Procedures. The PIC must also demonstrate an adequate knowledge of procedures applicable to flight paths over heavily populated areas and areas of high air traffic density; obstructions; physical layout; lighting; approach aids and arrival, departure, holding and instrument approach procedures (IAP); and applicable operating minimums.
c. Approaching Airports. The PIC will have made an actual approach into each airport of landing on the route, accompanied by a pilot qualified for that aircraft, as a member of the flightcrew or as an observer on the flight deck, unless:
• The approach to the airport is not over difficult terrain, the landing approach aids available are similar to those that the pilot has knowledge of, a margin approved by the Administrator is added to the normal operating minimums, or there is reasonable certainty that they can make a specific approach in visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
• The PIC can make the descent from the initial approach altitude in day VMC.
• The operator qualifies the PIC to land at the airport concerned by means of an adequate pictorial presentation.
• The airport concerned is adjacent to another airport at which the PIC has the qualifications to land.
12-3. TRAINING CONSIDERATIONS.
a. Receiving Approval. Crews conducting oceanic flights will receive training approved by the Administrator. Air carrier’s training programs will receive approval in conjunction with their certification and subsequent issuance of operations specification (OpSpec). General aviation aircraft desiring to fly in special use airspace will receive approval through the issuance of letter of authorization (LOA) crew qualifications for one of the following may satisfy the issuance of an LOA:
• Completing an operator’s oceanic operations training program.
• Completing a commercial oceanic operations training program.
• Submitting military training records indicating prior oceanic operations experience.
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• Using other methods indicating to the operator that the crew can safely conduct oceanic operations. (Examples could include written testing, oral testing, or evidence of prior experience.)
b. Qualifications for Oceanic Operations. To consider a crew qualified for oceanic operations, crewmembers must be knowledgeable in the following subject areas:
• ICAO operational rules and regulations.
• ICAO measurement standards.
• Use of oceanic flight planning charts.
• Sources and content of international flight publications.
• Itinerary planning and overflight clearances.
• Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) international flight plan, ICAO flight plan, and flight log preparation.
• Route planning within the special use airspace where they conduct flights including Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP) requirements.
• En route and terminal procedures – different from U.S. procedures.
• Long range, air-to-ground communication procedures including all data link and satellite communication (SATCOM) Voice operations.
• Structure of the special use airspace where they conduct the flights.
• Air traffic clearances.
• International meteorology, including significant weather, charts, prognostic weather charts, tropopause prognostic charts, and terminal area forecasts (TAF).
• Specific en route navigation procedures for each type of navigation equipment required for use in the special use airspace.
• Emergency procedures, including required emergency equipment, SAR techniques, navigation equipment failure techniques, and communication equipment failure techniques.
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CHAPTER 13. GENERAL AVIATION SHORT-RANGE AIRCRAFT OCEANIC
OPERATIONS
13-1. INTRODUCTION. This chapter provides guidance to the general aviation pilot who is flying a light, general aviation aircraft in oceanic operations, and specifically addresses aircraft with a relatively short range that cannot transverse an ocean without intermediate fuel stops. You should read the information contained in this chapter in detail. It is important to note that this chapter includes International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) rules and Canadian departure requirements for transoceanic flights. These requirements become regulatory to U.S. pilots by virtue of the content of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, § 91.703.
Most short-range aircraft crossing the North Atlantic (NAT) will, out of necessity, make a Canadian departure. These aircraft are bound by Canadian regulations in addition to U.S.
regulations and ICAO rules. Although emphasis in this chapter is on NAT flights by short-range aircraft, the majority of the information is pertinent to all oceanic operations by short-range aircraft with the exception of operations in minimum navigation performance specifications (MNPS) airspace.
13-2. ICAO GUIDANCE. Noncompliance with basic requirements for navigation and communication equipment needed for oceanic flights or flights over remote areas caused a number of incidents that have occurred with NAT international general aviation (IGA) flights.
Most of the incidents were potentially hazardous to the aircraft occupants and to aircrew members called upon to conduct the searches. Some of the incidents resulted in needless and expensive alert activities on the part of the air traffic control (ATC), communicators, and controllers in search activities by rescue facilities. The incidents generally involved flights that were considerably off-course or had not made the required position reports. This chapter provides information for flight planning and operation of General Aviation (GA) flights across the NAT, in particular those operations carried out by light aircraft. GA pilots planning to cross the Atlantic at altitudes between flight level (FL) 275 and FL 400 (the altitude limits of MNPS airspace) must obtain a letter of authorization (LOA) for part 91 operations or must receive operations specification (OpSpec) approval if conducting an air carrier operation.
13-3. THE NAT ENVIRONMENT. The climate affecting NAT flight operations is demanding throughout the year as it’s likely that operators will encounter storms or other adverse weather during any season. It is probable that any transatlantic flight will encounter adverse weather on at least a portion of the flight. The scarcity of alternate airports available to transatlantic flights requires consideration of all significant weather systems along the route during the flight planning phase. Flights at higher NAT FLs (FL 275 – FL 400) require the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to authorize them for flights in the NAT/MNPS airspace. Navigation systems available to pilots include global positioning system (GPS).
However, a single Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) system or sensor that meets the requirements specified in Technical Standard Order (TSO) C-129 or C-129A may receive approval as a means in conjunction with VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR), distance measuring equipment (DME), and non-directional radio beacons (NDB) of oceanic navigation in NAT/MNPS airspace. We highly recommend an inertial navigation system (INS)/inertial reference system (IRS) as a self-contained navigation system. Therefore, it is extremely important that pilots understand the capabilities of their equipment and ensure that accurate navigation facilities exist to support their equipment throughout all of the proposed routes of Par 13-1 Page 143
Page 144 Par 13-3 flight. Several high-power NDBs located in the NAT region are useful to automatic direction finder (ADF)-equipped aircraft. Transmitters on adjacent frequencies do not monitor some of these stations, including commercial band transmitters, for outages or interference as atmospheric conditions without warning may severely affect the stations.
a. VHF Communications. Very high frequency (VHF) communications coverage extends to line-of-sight distance from facilities in Canada, Iceland, Greenland, the Azores and coastal Europe. Use of a remote facility in southern Greenland extends Canadian VHF coverage. High frequency (HF) communications are available throughout the NAT region for ATC purposes.
Use of HF by pilots on IGA flights permits proper monitoring of the flight’s progress.
HF-equipped flights should be able to receive meteorological information for aircraft in flight (VOLMET) broadcasts, including significant meteorological information (SIGMET) and continuous meteorological updates at major terminals in Europe and North America.
b. Search and Rescue (SAR). SAR vessels and aircraft are at some locations in the NAT region, but SAR aircraft may not always be available. The availability of SAR vessels may depend on the disposition of a nation’s civil emergency fleet. A nation’s fishing fleet often composes these fleets, and their proximity may depend on the current fishing situation.
13-4. PILOT QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS.
a. Minimum Pilot Qualification. The minimum pilot qualification for any flight across the NAT is a private pilot certificate. Operating above FL 60 (6,000 feet MSL), the pilot in command (PIC) must hold an instrument rating. The demanding NAT operational environment requires that the PIC have the following flight experience in addition to cross-country flight time:
• The PIC must meet the “recency of experience” requirements stipulated in part 91.
• The PIC must have adequate recent flight experience in the use of long-range navigation and communication equipment used. We highly recommend that pilots document the training they have received and their experience using this equipment prior to embarking on any oceanic flights. This documentation will be invaluable should the pilot file a navigation error report due to equipment difficulties that cause an error.
b. National Regulations. Pilots of U.S.-registered aircraft must comply with all applicable U.S. regulations, ICAO Annex 2, and the regulations of the states in which they overfly or land.
In the case where U.S.-regulations are more stringent than ICAO standards or vice versa, pilots are to adhere to the more stringent regulation or rule.
13-5. OCEANIC FLIGHT STANDARDS. ICAO member states have agreed that ICAO flight standards will be in effect for operations over the high seas. However, responsibility for enforcement of these standards rests with the State of Registry of the aircraft or the State of Registry of the operator. ICAO Annex 2 contains ICAO flight standards. ICAO Document 7030, current edition, covers procedural aspects. Under § 91.703, U.S.-registered aircraft must comply with ICAO Annex 2. U.S.-registered aircraft planning to operate in MNPS airspace must also comply with § 91.705. Paraphrased below are some of the more significant ICAO standards: