• All flights that cross an international border must file a flight plan.
• All flights will file an instrument flight rules (IFR) flight plan when intending to fly in NAT airspace at FL 60 and above in New York, Gander, Shanwick, Santa Maria and Reykjavik Oceanic flight information regions (FIR). In addition, IFR flight plans must file for the Bodo Oceanic FIR beyond 100 NM from the shoreline; and at FL 200 and above in the Sondrestrom FIR.
• While en route, report all changes to IFR flight plans as soon as practicable to the appropriate Air Traffic Service (ATS) as prescribed.
• Send an arrival report to the appropriate ATS unit. When you cannot close the flight plan by means of the aircraft radio, send either a telephone or telegraphic message.
Failure to close flight plans may result in a needless search operation.
13-6. OPERATION OF AIRCRAFT. ICAO member states have agreed that aircraft with their registration mark will comply with the standards concerning the operation of aircraft contained in ICAO Annex 6, as a minimum. Some of the more pertinent standards are paraphrased below:
• Before commencing flight, the pilot must ensure that the aircraft is airworthy, duly registered, and that appropriate certificates are onboard. Pilots flying U.S.-registered aircraft should be especially concerned with the “duly registered” aspects of this section. Title 14 CFR part 47, §§ 47.3 through 47.11 are specific regulations relative to the legality of U.S.-registered aircraft.
• Aircraft instruments and equipment must be appropriate for the operation, considering expected flight conditions. Chapter 10 provides details of required instruments and equipment in addition to the information provided below.
• The PIC must obtain meteorological information relevant to the flight and evaluate it with regard to the planned route, destination, and alternative courses of action.
• Maps and charts that are current, suitable for the flight, and include alternative routes must be available on the aircraft.
• The PIC obtains SAR information, including location of facilities and procedures.
• The PIC should check the Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) prior to departure to ascertain the status of radio Navigational Aids (NAVAID) and airport restrictions.
• Night operations can present additional problems that the PIC must consider, such as increased navigation difficulties, fatigue, more demanding pilot skills, and other factors.
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• The PIC should check the Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) of states where landings will be made or for states that will be overflown prior to departure. This advisory circular (AC) provides the necessary operational information derived from the AIPs, particularly with respect to the requirements for the carriage of survival equipment.
13-7. EQUIPMENT.
a. Emergency Equipment Requirements. Single-engine aircraft will carry life rafts when operating more than 100 NM from shore and multiengine aircraft will carry them when operating more than 200 NM from shore. These life rafts will contain at least the following:
• Pyrotechnic distress signals.
• Food and water.
• A VHF survival radio.
b. Navigation Equipment. On transatlantic flights, aircraft will have navigation equipment equipped that will enable it to proceed in the following capacities:
• In accordance with the flight plan.
• In accordance with the requirements of the ATSs.
• In accordance with MNPS requirements when operating in that airspace.
c. Communication Equipment. In controlled airspace, flights must be able to conduct two-way radio communication on required frequencies. Use of emergency frequencies as a planned operation is in conflict with this rule. The VHF emergency frequency 121.5 megahertz (MHz) does not have authorization for routine use. The frequency 123.45 MHz is the air-to-air communication frequency in the NAT region. In the Gander, Shanwick, Santa Maria, Reykjavik, Sondrestrom and New York FIRs, HF radios are to contact ATS units when beyond the range of VHF. Subject to prior arrangement, you may make VHF-only flights via Canada, Greenland, Iceland, and Europe, provided you avoid the Shanwick FIR. We recommend pilots planning these types of flights to obtain and study the individual AIPs pertaining to their route of flight.
13-8. SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FLIGHTS TRANSITING GREENLAND. The elevation of the highest point in Greenland is 13,120 feet mean sea level (MSL), and the general elevation of the icecap is 9,000 feet MSL. Knowledge of the high altitudes in Greenland need to be taken into account in the event of pressurization and emergency descent situations. Due to the low temperatures and high wind speeds, the lowest useable FL under certain conditions may be FL 235 near the highest point and FL 190 near the icecap. High-capacity cabin heating systems are necessary due to the very low in-flight temperatures usually encountered, even in summer.
Rapidly changing weather situations involving severe icing, severe turbulence, and heavy precipitation are common and require extra vigilance by pilots. The changes may be so rapid that they are difficult to forecast. An emergency locator transmitter (ELT) transmits Greenland due to Page 146 Par 13-6
Par 13-8 Page 147 the very difficult terrain that hampers searches. The air navigation service provider (ANSP) monitors regulatory compliance and states will be informed of any infractions. Narsarsuaq Airport, Nuuk/Godthab Airport, Kulusuk Airport, and Ilulissat/Jakobshavn Airport at Constable Point provide airport flight information.
a. Airport Locations. The general locations of these airports are as follows:
• Narsarsuaq is on the southern tip of Greenland at the end of a fjord.
• Nuuk/Godthab is on the west coast of Greenland halfway between Narsarsuaq and Sondrestrom.
• Kulusuk is on the east coast of Greenland 343 NM northeast of Narsarsuaq.
• Ilulissat/Jakobshavn is on the west coast of Greenland 137 NM north of Sondrestrom.
b. Radio Equipment Requirements for Aircraft Operating Below or Above FL 195.
The Sondrestrom FIR below FL 195 only provides flight information service (FIS) and alerting service. IFR flights operating within the Sondrestrom FIR below FL 195 must have functional radio equipment capable of operating on the published HFs for Sondrestrom. Flights operating within the Sondrestrom FIR above FL 195 (that is, Reykjavik or Gander control areas (CTA)) and outside of VHF coverage of Iceland or Gander must have functional radio equipment capable of operating on the published HFs for Iceland/Gander.
13-9. SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FLIGHTS TRANSITING ICELAND. The general elevation of mountainous areas in Iceland is approximately 8,000 feet MSL. Due to the great difference in pressure and high wind speeds, the lowest useable FL may, under certain conditions, be FL 120.
a. Survival Equipment. Aircraft should be equipped with sufficient and appropriate arctic survival equipment. Aircraft operating in the oceanic sector of the Reykjavik FIR must maintain a continuous watch on the appropriate frequency of Iceland Radio. When operations take place outside of VHF coverage of the air-ground station, carriage of an HF transceiver operational on appropriate frequencies is mandatory. However, you may obtain prior approval for flight outside VHF coverage and without HF equipment. Flights operating under this special approval are responsible for obtaining similar approval for operating in the airspace of adjacent ATC units.
Flights between FL 80 and FL 195 on the route between Sondrestrom and Keflavik passing through 65° N. 30° W. and Kulusuk, and flights above FL 240 operating between the United Kingdom and Iceland routed at or north of 61° N. 10° W., have adequate VHF coverage and are exempt from HF requirements.
b. Navigation Equipment. The aircraft will carry navigation equipment adequate to navigate in accordance with the flight plan and ATC clearances onboard. Iceland requires Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) transponders with Mode 3/A and C. Pilots will operate SSR transponders continuously on Mode A, Code 2000, except that departing aircraft will retain the last assigned code for 30 minutes after entry into NAT oceanic airspace unless otherwise
instructed by ATC. AIPs and NOTAM information are available on request at all Iceland airports of entry and from the Directorate of Civil Aviation Telegraph address:
CIVILAIR ICELAND Aeronautical Information Service TELEX: 2250 FALCON ISLAND Reykjavik Airport, Iceland AFTN: BICAYN 101 Reykjavik
13-10. ELT REQUIREMENT FOR TURBOJET-POWERED AIRCRAFT. Effective January 1, 2004, all U.S.-registered civil airplanes having a maximum payload of less than 18,000 pounds, including turbojet-powered aircraft, must have an ELT installed. You can find exceptions to this requirement in § 91.207.
a. ICAO Annex 6, Part II ELT Requirement. From January 1, 2005, all general aviation “aeroplanes” operated on “extended flights over water” and on flights over “designated land areas” (as defined in ICAO Annex 6, Part II) must have one automatic ELT that transmits on both 406 MHz and 121.5 MHz equipped.
b. ICAO Annex 6, Part I ELT Requirement. From January 1, 2005, all “aeroplanes” operating as “commercial air transport” on “long-range over-water flights” and (as defined in ICAO Annex 6, Part I) must have two ELTs, one of which is automatic, equipped. These ELTs must transmit on both 406 MHz and 121.5 MHz.
13-11. SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CANADIAN DEPARTURES. Canadian Air Regulation S.540 prohibits singleengine aircraft from transoceanic flight departing Canada unless the Minister grants the aircraft authorization to do so. This regulation also applies to multiengine aircraft that cannot maintain flight after failure of the critical engine. The PIC of a single-engine or multiengine aircraft must obtain authorization to commence a transatlantic flight from Canada after landing at Moncton or New Brunswick in Canada. The PIC will receive authorization when they meet the requirements that satisfy the Regional Director, Aviation Regulation, or a representative. At least 48 hours prior to landing at Moncton, the pilot should inform the Regional Director, Aviation Regulation, 95 Foundry Street, Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada, E1C 8K6, Telex 0142 666, of the intended transatlantic flight, stating date and time of arrival at Moncton, aircraft type, registration mark, and pilots’ and passengers’ names and addresses. Inspections are also possible at other regional offices in Montreal, Toronto, Winnipeg, Edmonton, and Vancouver. However, we request that you make the first contact with Moncton to coordinate the details of an alternate inspection site.
a. PIC Requirements for Examining Officer. At Moncton or the alternate inspection site, the PIC must satisfy an examining officer of the following:
• Certification as a pilot with a valid and current instrument rating.
• Knowledge of the meteorological, communication, ATC, and SAR facilities and procedures on the route flown.
• Knowledge of radio and other NAVAIDs, and the ability to use these aids en route.
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b. Preparation and Requirements for Authorized Routes. Authorized routes will be those that will provide a minimum of 3 hours fuel reserve at destination considering useable fuel, an appropriate flight manual fuel consumption and true airspeed (TAS) indication (documented or charted), and a ZERO wind component. The PIC must present a complete navigation log for the ocean crossing. The log must show 5° longitude checkpoints, tracks, variation, and distances with the capability to recalculate on the basis of the most recent forecast en route winds. In anticipation of equipment problems, pilots should make preparations to complete the flight using dead reckoning (DR) navigation techniques.
NOTE: Some experienced ferry pilots apply the forecast wind to each 5° longitude segment of track to the nearest 10°, then add 10 knots if a headwind or subtract 10 knots if a tailwind. Next they ensure that both wind direction and track are in magnetic units by applying variation to the true course. If the cross-track wind component is over 20 knots or the drift angle is over 10°, they wait for a better wind before departing. High speed, unforecasted winds can easily increase the flight time to the extent that a short-range aircraft cannot comply with the 3 hour fuel reserve regulation.
c. Inspection Documents. Upon arrival at the inspection site, the PIC will present the following documents for inspection:
• Certificate of Registration from the State of Registry. The State of Registry requires U.S.-registered aircraft to have a permanent registration. Temporary (pink slips) are not satisfactory for oceanic flights.
• Certificate of Airworthiness, Flight Permit, or Special Airworthiness Certificate.
• Certification and special conditions issued by the State of Registry to allow over gross weight operations, if applicable.
• Certification issued by the State of Registry for fuel tank modifications and/or the installation of temporary long-range tanks. For U.S.-registered aircraft, obtaining a completed FAA Form 337, Major Repair and Alteration (Airframe, Powerplant, Propeller, or Appliance), satisfies the certification requirements.
• Revised Weight and Balance (W&B) records in the case of aircraft modified to carry extra fuel.
NOTE: An export Certificate of Airworthiness does not constitute authority to operate an aircraft. One of the documents listed above must accompany it.
These documents are not available at Moncton, and Canadian authorities have no authority to issue these documents to U.S.-registered aircraft.
d. Aircraft Equipment Requirements.
(1) Sea Survival Equipment. Aircraft are required to carry the following sea survival equipment:
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• A readily accessible watertight immersion suit for each occupant, including undergarments which provide thermal protection.
• A readily accessible life jacket, complete with light, for each occupant.
• A readily accessible Type W, water-activated, self-buoyant, water-resistant ELT.
• A readily accessible life raft sufficient to accommodate all persons onboard the aircraft. Fit the life raft with the following items:
• Water, or a means of desalting or distilling saltwater, sufficient to provide at least one pint of water per person.
• A water bag.
• Water purification tablets.
• Food that is in the form of carbohydrates, has a caloric value of at least 500 calories per person, and is not subject to deterioration by heat or cold.
• Flares (at least three per life raft).
• Hole plugs.
• A bail bucket and sponge.
• A signal mirror.
• A whistle.
• A knife.
• A survival at-sea manual.
• Waterproof flashlights (minimum two per life raft).
• A first aid kit containing eye ointment, burn ointment, compresses, bandages, methiolate, and seasick pills.
• A dye marker.
(2) Polar Survival Equipment. You may store and carry the water and food in appropriate containers separate from the rafts if you can readily and quickly attach the containers to the raft. In addition to the items listed as “sea survival equipment” (above), aircraft will carry the following polar survival equipment for flights over Labrador, and for any flight routing north of Prins Christian Sund over Greenland:
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• A signaling sheet (minimum 1 x 1 meters = 3.28 feet x 3.28 feet) in a reflecting color.
• A magnetic compass.
• Winter sleeping bags in sufficient quantity to accommodate all persons carried.
• Matches in waterproof covers.
• A ball of string.
• A stove and supply of fuel or a self-contained means of providing heat for cooking and the accompanying mess kits.
• A snow saw.
• Candles or some other self-contained means of providing heat with a burning time of about 2 hours per person. The minimum candles carried onboard must not be less than 40 hours of burning time.
• Personal clothing suitable for the climatic conditions along the overflown route.
• A suitable instruction manual in polar survival techniques.
• Mosquito netting and insect repellant.
e. Instruments and Equipment in Serviceable Condition. Aircraft must have following instruments and equipment in serviceable condition equipped:
• An airspeed indicator and heated pitot head.
• A sensitive pressure altimeter.
• A direct reading magnetic compass calibrated within the preceding 30 days with the aircraft in the same configuration as for the intended transoceanic flight.
• A gyroscopic direction indicator or a gyromagnetic compass.
• A turn and bank indicator.
• A rate of climb and descent indicator.
• An outside air temperature gauge.
• A gyroscopic bank and pitch indicator.
• Unless another timepiece with a sweep-second hand is available, a reliable, installed timepiece with a sweep-second hand.
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• If there is a probability of encountering icing conditions along the route flown, deicing or anti-icing equipment for the engine, propeller, and airframe.
• If you make any portion of the flight at night, include the following:
• Navigation lights.
• Two landing lights or a single landing light having two separately energized filaments.
• Illumination for all instruments that are essential for the safe operation of the aircraft.
• An electric flashlight at each required flightcrew member’s station.
NOTE: Secure all equipment and cargo carried in the cabin to prevent shifting in flight and place the equipment and cargo in such a position so they will not block or restrict the aircraft’s exits.
NOTE: We recommend portable oxygen equipment. This equipment is useful when trying to avoid icing and/or for the additional altitude required over the Greenland icecap.
f. Oceanic Control Area (OCA) and FIR Communications. In the OCA and FIRs, VHF coverage is not sufficient to ensure continuous two-way communications with ground stations. Although relay through other aircraft is sometimes possible, it is not guaranteed. Do not use emergency frequencies for planned position relays or any other purposes except for bona fide emergencies. HF radio is mandatory for each aircraft crossing the Atlantic in MNPS airspace.
The only exception is for aircraft flying at FL 250 or above crossing Greenland or operating on the Blue Spruce routes. The following are route specific navigation equipment requirements for navigation in accordance with the flight plan and any ATC clearances:
• Iqualuit [Frobisher Bay] (CFYB) to Greenland: Two independent ADF receivers with beat frequency oscillator (BFO)/continuous wave (CW) capability. Portable ADFs are no longer acceptable.
• Goose Bay, Labrador to Narsarsuaq, Greenland: Two independent ADF receivers with BFO/CW capability.
• Goose Bay to Reykjavik, Iceland via Prins Christian Sund, Greenland: Two independent ADF receivers as above or one ADF set and one LORAN-C set.
Danish Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) strongly recommends two ADF sets because of poor LORAN-C reception around Greenland.
• Gander, Newfoundland to Shannon, Ireland: One LORAN-C set and one ADF set.
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• St John’s, New Brunswick to Santa Maria (Azores): One LORAN-C set and one ADF set. Note that LORAN-C reception ends short of the Azores.
g. Publication Requirements for Aircraft in the NAT Region. Each aircraft will carry current aeronautical maps, charts, airport data, and IFR Approach Plates covering the area which the aircraft might fly over and for airports along the route of flight. This includes en route and potential departure diversions as well as destination alternates. Although a flight is planned as a visual flight rules (VFR) flight, the Canadian government insists that pilots carry IFR publications due to the potential for instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) in the NAT region.
h. Flight Planning Publications and Charts. Aircraft intending to land or anticipating a possible diversion to Narsarsuaq, Greenland will carry either the BGBW Visual Approach Chart depicting the fjord approach or a topographical chart of large enough scale to permit map reading up the fjord. Pilots must have charts in the aircraft at the time of inspection in Moncton. Charts are not for sale at Moncton or at any of the coastal airports in the vicinity of Moncton. It is advisable for pilots who do not have an available source of publication to contact one of the commercial publishers of “Trip Kits” to obtain the necessary publications. Plan flights using current aeronautical charts and the latest Class I and Class II NOTAMs. It is extremely important that the PIC be familiar with the nature of the terrain over which they conduct the flight. If unfamiliar with the terrain, the PIC should consult with officials at the appropriate local aviation field offices before departure. These officials, as well as local pilots and operators, can provide a great deal of useful advice, especially on the ever-changing supply situation at remote locations such as Frobisher Bay, the location and condition of possible emergency landing strips, potential hazards, and en route weather conditions. During preflight planning, the PIC must ensure that required fuel, food, accommodations, and services are available at intermediate stops and at the destination airport.
13-12. MAJOR ROUTES USED BY SHORT-RANGE AIRCRAFT CROSSING THE NAT. The four major routes used by short-range aircraft to cross the NAT are in Figure 11. All except the northern route require the installation of long-range fuel tanks to satisfy the 3 hour reserve fuel requirement. In addition, each of these routes presents its own peculiar set of problems.
a. Northern Route (Moncton to Sept-Isle, Shefferville, Kuujjuaq and Iqualuit). The northern route is the longest route, but has the shortest over-water legs. It does, however, transverse long distances over remote, hostile and unpopulated terrain. This route for relatively short-range aircraft normally follows a route that heads almost due north from Moncton to Sept-Isle, Shefferville, Kuujjuaq, and Iqualuit (formerly known as Frobisher). At Iqualuit, the flight heads eastbound over-water to Greenland. Pilot reports from Kuujjuaq indicate that there are times when fuel is not available at Kuujjuaq, and that living quarters are primitive (if available at all). Once reaching Greenland, the route traverses the icecap, which can mean flying at FL 130 or higher. This presents the potential for cold temperature, icing, and severe weather.
b. Direct Route (Goose Bay, Labrador (CYRR) to Reykjavik, Iceland via Prins Christian Sund, Greenland NDB). The direct route from Goose Bay, Labrador (CYRR) to
Reykjavik, Iceland via Prins Christian Sund, Greenland NDB is one of the best routes with Narsarsuaq a midway alternate, although the NAT storm track can cause problems with wind and weather. This route means potential icing and weather problems over the Davis Straight (between Greenland and Iceland), plus coping with a demanding day only VFR approach.
c. Gander, Newfoundland to Shannon, Ireland. Gander, Newfoundland direct to Shannon, Ireland presents the usual problems of NAT severe weather, plus the significant effect that an unforecasted wind shift can have on a slow aircraft flying a 1,700 NM leg. In addition, the amount of extra fuel used with a 5 knot unanticipated headwind would be significant over such a long range.
d. St. John’s, New Brunswick in Canada to Santa Maria in the Azores. The route from St. John’s, New Brunswick in Canada to Santa Maria in the Azores has the advantages of generally better weather and higher temperatures. The airport at Flores, located 300 NM west of Santa Maria, is a good alternate. The disadvantages are that LORAN-C coverage is not reliable for the whole distance, and wind shifts that have not been forecast, coupled with poor ADF equipment and/or procedures, could mean missing the Azores altogether.
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FIGURE 11. FOUR MAJOR ROUTES USED BY SHORT-RANGE AIRCRAFT TO
CROSS THE NORTH ATLANTIC AC 91-70 09/06/94 FIGURE 11-1. FOUR MAJOR ROUTES USED BY SHORT-RANGE AIRCRAFT CROSSING THE NAT Godthab/Nu Reykjavi Kuu j juac Faeroe Islands Stornow Sopt. Islandi ose Bay
(9) The four major routes used by short-range aircraft to cross the NAT are depicted in Figure 11-1 above. All except the northern route require the installation of long-range fuel tanks to satisfy the 3 hour reserve fuel requirement. In addition, each of these routes presents its own peculiar set of problems.
(a) The northern route is the longest route, but has the shortest overwater legs. It does, however, transverse long distances over remote, hostile, unpopulated terrain. This route for relatively short-range aircraft normally follows a route that heads almost due north from Moncton to Sept-Isle to Shefferville to Kuujjuaq to Iqualuit (formerly known as Frobisher). At Iqualuit, the flight heads eastbound overwater to Greenland.
Pilot reports from Kuujjuaq indicate that there are times when fuel is not available at Kuujjuaq, and that quarters are primitive (if available at all). Once reaching Greenland, the route traverses the icecap, which can mean flying at FL 130 or higher. This presents the potential for cold temperature, icing, and severe weather. Pilots should expect no Loran-C reception; good ADF tracking is essential.
(b) The direct route from Goose Bay, Labrador (CYRR) to Reykjavik, Iceland via Prins Christian Sund, Greenland NDB is one of the best routes with Narssarssuaq a midway alternate, although the NAT storm track can cause problems with wind and weather. This route means potential icing and weather problems over the Davis Straight (between Greenland and Iceland), plus coping with a demanding dayonly VPR approach. Loran-C is unreliable at both ends of this approach, and there is steeply rising terrain on both sides and at the end of the approach.
e. Additional Notes. Since icing is a severe hazard for light aircraft, temperatures should play a significant part in flight planning. June to September is the best time of year for all of the routes. At other times, the St. John's to Santa Maria route is the best choice because it overflies the Gulf Stream. An analysis of the most favored routes by professional ferry companies indicates that the route from Goose Bay direct to Reykjavik is the most popular, with the Par 13-12 Page 155
Page 156 Par 13-12 Santa Maria route being the next in popularity. However, we must emphasize that most light aircraft need to have long-range tanks installed to traverse these routes.
f. Flight Plans. File flight plans for international flights originating in Canada, flights in Europe, and flights entering Canada from overseas in the ICAO format. IFR (ICAO) flight plans are mandatory at or above FL 60 (6,000 feet MSL) in all oceanic CTAs, the Reykjavik FIR and at or above FL 195 in the Sondrestrom FIR (Greenland and off the coast of Greenland).
Although VFR flight under the OCA (5,500 feet MSL and below) is possible, there is little advantage in flying VFR. In fact, the Canadian government predicates their requirements upon the assumption that operators will encounter IMCs at some time during the flight. Therefore, it is prudent to take advantage of the flexibility, winds, safety factor and navigation/communication radio reception of the higher altitudes afforded by an IFR flight.
g. Additional Canadian Inspection Notes. Transport Canada will no longer approve for transatlantic flight an aircraft fitted with a “placarded” ferry tank, where it is obvious that the intent of the placard is to avoid regulatory inspection of the installation, and issue of a Special Airworthiness Certificate for over-gross operation. A permanent waiver of the Canadian transoceanic inspection is available providing a pilot has successfully completed at least two inspections and transoceanic flights. However, a pilot who has received a waiver is still subject to spot checks by any NAT ICAO Provider State.
h. Canadian Customs Procedures. Pilots must land at a Canadian Customs authorized airport of entry (AOE) and must file a flight plan for all trans-border operations. Canadian customs must receive notification in sufficient time to enable designated customs officers to inspect the aircraft.
13-13. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS.
a. Personal Physical Needs. These include nourishment, body comfort and provisions for biological relief. Canadian departures require certain foodstuffs, but all pilots should familiarize themselves with the caloric content, sugar content, ease of access, digestibility and weight of the food that they intend to use during flight. Foods should be high in calories but low in sugar content. Sweets will provide the body with an immediate energy lift but will dissipate in effectiveness very rapidly and will have a tendency to create thirst. Biological relief is an extremely important factor to consider. Pain can distract a pilot who has overextended his/her human range (HR) to the point where intelligent decision making and physical skills will deteriorate to the point of creating a serious safety hazard. Pilots can increase HR by eating and drinking prudently prior to each leg of the flight. Another consideration is that of body comfort.
Although flights departing Canada require watertight immersion suits, consider this as only one form of protective clothing. The potential need to climb to a high altitude to escape detrimental winds or to fly over the icecap in Greenland demands that the pilot has warm clothing readily available and easily accessible. Glare is also a significant hazard when flying above the clouds or flying over an icecap which indicates that a pair of good sunglasses is