32.1.5.14 Takeoff Warning (TOW) System.
32.1.5.14.1 The TOW system is usually a subset of the CAWS or MCS/MWS or FWC and is generally inhibited at nose wheel liftoff during the takeoff maneuver. It is usually armed when the squat switch indicates that the airplane is on the ground and one or more power or thrust levers are advanced beyond a prescribed position or engine power or thrust setting.
The system alarms if the flaps/slats/stabilizer/spoiler/brakes are not set correctly for takeoff.
32.1.5.14.2 Determine that each event is annunciated properly by conducting a static ground test.
32.1.5.14.3 Flight evaluation during takeoff roll should be a qualitative assessment of the clarity, tone, and volume of each warning. Some systems incorporate a TEST switch, which facilitates activation during takeoff. If this feature is not available, it may suffice to check the audio level of a warning during touch and go landings (e.g., the stabilizer warning while accelerating to VR speed).
32.1.5.14.4 Simulate failure of selected sensor inputs to verify that the TOW system detects the faults and illuminates the fail annunciator (if installed).
32.1.5.14.5 Verify that the system’s arming status is not affected by electrical power transients, which occur when switching from ground or APU power, during engine start, following bus priority checks, etc.
32.1.5.14.6 Verify that there is no unacceptable mutual interference between the TOW system and other airplane systems and equipment.
32.1.5.15 Instrument Comparator System.
32.1.5.15.1 If an instrument comparator system is installed and activated, ensure the system monitors validity of and compares (side 1 vs. side 2) pitch and roll attitude, heading, altitude, airspeed, radio altitude, localizer, and glideslope deviation information used for display in the cockpit instruments.
32.1.5.15.2 When these parameters exceed a preset threshold or trip level, or if an invalid condition is detected in any of the displayed information, an appropriate annunciator to that parameter will be illuminated.
32.1.5.15.3 A ground test on the airplane should be conducted to demonstrate performance of intended functions and validate the detector threshold levels. If annunciation is suppressed under certain conditions, these conditions should also be checked.
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32.1.5.15.4 A flight evaluation should also be conducted to determine adequacy of the annunciator light locations and visibility under various lighting conditions and that the annunciators are properly identified.
32.1.5.15.5 During flight, verify that the system is free from nuisance warnings and is compatible with other electronic systems.
32.1.5.16 Reactive Windshear Warning System.
A complete and comprehensive demonstration program (simulator and flight test) is contained in AC 25-12.
32.1.5.17 Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System.
A complete and comprehensive demonstration program (laboratory/ground/flight test) is contained in AC 20-131A.
32.1.6 Procedures—Recording Systems.
32.1.6.1 Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR).
32.1.6.1.1 Demonstrate operation of the CVR self-test function and bulk erase feature.
32.1.6.1.2 During ground operations prior to and after engine start; during takeoff, climbout, and cruise at VMO/MMO; and during landing approach. Except where specifically noted, obtain the following CVR recordings:
1. Flightcrew conversations using the area microphone.
2. Flightcrew conversations using the oxygen mask microphones and the boom-microphone/handset, and the hand-held microphones in flight and during ground operations.
3. Radio transmissions by each crew member during cruise.
4. Audio signals identifying navigation aids (through cockpit speakers and on radio channels) during landing approach.
5. PA announcement during cruise.
6. Selective (based on analysis) aural warning signals (see CAWS) during appropriate flight phases.
32.1.6.1.3 Use CVR circuit breaker to limit CVR recording to available capacity.
32.1.6.1.4 Verify that all controls, displays, and annunciators consistent with normal and abnormal crew procedures, are satisfactorily identified, accessible, operable, and visible.
32.1.6.1.5 EMC. Verify by observation that no adverse effects are present in the required flight systems.
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32.1.6.1.6 Following the flight, test the CVR audio recording in an appropriate laboratory, and evaluate for clarity of the recorded messages. Preferably the evaluators should not have advance information concerning the flightcrew conversations.
32.1.6.1.7 Verify that the hot mike feature at each position allows for recording regardless of the position of the interphone transmit key switch (§ 25.1457(c)(5)).
32.1.6.2 Digital Flight Data Recorder (DFDR).
32.1.6.2.1 Demonstrate operation of the DFDR self-test feature and, prior to collection of test data, set the trip number and date on the code switches of the Trip and Data Encoder, if so equipped.
32.1.6.2.2 The certification data will be derived automatically during any appropriate flight that encompasses operation throughout the full flight envelope.
Hand recorded data of heading (magnetic or true), barometric altitude, pitch attitude, indicated airspeed, and time (UTC) should be collected at several stabilized flight conditions for subsequent data correlation purposes.
32.1.6.2.3 Following the flight, the data should be retrieved for correlation and accuracy verification.
32.1.6.2.4 Demonstrate performance of intended function of the DFDR for all parameters specified in the operating rules. (See appendix B to part 121 for the relevant data ranges, accuracies, and recording intervals.) Accuracy will be verified at stabilized points by correlating against, and comparing with, an approved instrumentation system or manual notes.
32.1.6.2.5 EMC. Verify by observation that no adverse effects are present in the required flight systems.
32.1.7 Engine Interfacing Systems.
[Reserved]
32.1.8 Stability Augmentation Systems.
[Reserved]
32.1.9 All Weather Operation (Reduced Visibility) Systems.
[Reserved] 32-38
32.2 Flight and Navigation Instruments—§ 25.1303.
32.2.1 Explanation.
32.2.1.1 Section 25.1303(b)(1) requires an airspeed indicator to be visible at each pilot station. Additionally, if airspeed limitations vary with altitude, airspeed indicators must have a maximum allowable airspeed indicator showing the variation of VMO with altitude. Presenting this variation in VMO as a marker on the airspeed indicator whose position varies as a function of altitude is an acceptable means of compliance with this requirement.
32.2.1.2 Production tolerances for speed warning devices at VMO/MMO are required to be taken into account in accordance with § 25.1303(c).
32.2.1.3 Section 21.127(b)(2) requires each production flight test to include “An operational check of each part or system operated by the crew while in flight to establish that during flight, instrument readings are within normal range.” Nowhere in these requirements is there any inference that the finite performance or quantitative limits, defined during type certification, need to be determined for each production airplane.
32.2.1.4 Section 25.1303(c) requires that turbine-powered airplanes be equipped with a speed warning device that will provide aural warning whenever the speed exceeds VMO plus 6 knots or MMO + 0.01 M. The regulations specify that the upper limit of the production tolerances permitted for the warning device must be at a speed not greater than the prescribed warning speed.
32.2.1.5 Accuracy requirements specified in §§ 25.1323 and 25.1325 that apply to the airspeed indicator and altimeter required by § 25.1303(b)(1) and (2), respectively, apply equally to all installed airspeed indicators and altimeters, including standby airspeed indicators and altimeters.
32.2.2 Procedures.
The applicant should substantiate, by appropriate ground and/or flight tests, with possible production instrument error corrections, that the system operates within the boundaries established by the regulation. Understanding that other procedures may be acceptable, this could be accomplished in accordance with the following:
32.2.2.1 If the maximum allowable airspeed varies as a function of altitude and is indicated by means other than a maximum airspeed versus altitude presentation in the airspeed indicator, it should be substantiated that the chosen means of maximum allowable airspeed indication provides an accurate presentation of the relationship between VMO and altitude. The indicated VMO should not exceed the actual VMO for any altitude by more than six knots. This is particularly important for airplanes that have a step 32-39
AC 25-7D CHG 1
function in VMO at a specific altitude (e.g., 10,000 feet) due to bird strike considerations below that altitude.
32.2.2.2 During production flights, the speed warning device must provide warning at a speed equal to or less than VMO + 6 knots or MMO + 0.01 M, minus the sum of the values stipulated in 32.2.2.2.1 and 32.2.2.2.2 below:
32.2.2.2.1 The possible error of the airspeed indicator or Mach meter used as the reference.
32.2.2.2.2 Three knots or 0.005 M, if the airspeed indicator or Mach meter used as the reference has a static or pitot pressure source different from the pressure sources of the warning devices.
32.2.2.3 The speed warning device must be shown to comply with the requirements of § 25.1303(c), as explained in paragraph 32.2.2.3.1 and 32.2.2.3.2 below:
32.2.2.3.1 During ground test using calibrated reference instruments, the installed speed warning device must provide warning at a speed equal to or less than VMO + 6 knots or MMO + 0.01 M. The procedure for this test should be processed in accordance with § 21.127(b)(5) or § 21.143(a)(3).
32.2.2.3.2 For each type design, a test should be conducted to show satisfactory correlation between the operation of the warning device during flight and the data obtained during the ground tests.
32.3 Powerplant Instruments—§ 25.1305. [Reserved]
32.4 Miscellaneous Equipment—§ 25.1307. [Reserved]
32.5 Equipment, Systems, and Installations—§ 25.1309.
32.5.1 Explanation.
The following procedures outline and paraphrase the appropriate provisions of § 25.1309. Further definition and explanation, if required, may be found in part 25 and in AC 25.1309-1B.
32.5.2 Procedures.
32.5.2.1 Evaluate functioning of required installed equipment to verify that performance is as intended under any foreseeable operating and environmental conditions.
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32.5.2.2 Evaluate failure conditions, as appropriate, to determine their impact on the capability of the airplane or the ability of the crew to operate it.
32.5.2.3 Review, as appropriate, any design analyses, proposals, studies, or tests that correlate probabilities of failure condition occurrence with the effects of those failure conditions, to determine that they are properly categorized for the appropriate criticality level.
32.5.2.4 Verify that adequate warnings are provided of unsafe conditions, and that these warnings enable the flightcrew to take appropriate corrective action with a minimum of error.
32.5.2.5 In accordance with § 25.1310, for probable operating combinations of required electrical installations, verify that the following power loads are provided for probable durations:
32.5.2.5.1 Loads connected to the system with the system functioning normally;
32.5.2.5.2 Essential loads after failure of any one prime mover, power, converter, or energy storage device;
32.5.2.5.3 Essential loads after failure of one engine on a two-engine airplane;
32.5.2.5.4 Essential loads after failure of two engines on airplanes with three or more engines; and
32.5.2.5.5 Essential loads for which an alternate source of power is required, after any failure or malfunction in any one power supply system, distribution system, or other utilization system.
32.5.2.6 For probable operating combinations of required electrical installations that must be provided with an alternate source of power in accordance with § 25.1331(a), verify that power is provided for probable durations after failure of any one power system.
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CHAPTER 33. EQUIPMENT: INSTRUMENTS INSTALLATION
33.1 Arrangement and Visibility—§ 25.1321. [Reserved]
33.2 Warning, Caution, and Advisory Lights—§ 25.1322. [Reserved]
33.3 Airspeed Indicating System—§ 25.1323.
33.3.1 Explanation.
33.3.1.1 Methods.
33.3.1.1.1 Unless a calibrated reference system is provided, the airspeed system should be calibrated throughout as wide a range as necessary to cover the intended flight tests. The procedures of this section are for the purpose of showing compliance with § 25.1323(b) and are not intended to cover the speed range of the flight tests. If an alternate airspeed indicating system is provided, it should be calibrated. The airspeed indicating system should be calibrated in accordance with the following methods:
33.3.1.1.2 The tests should be conducted in stabilized flight at airspeeds throughout the speed range for the airplane configurations to be tested. The airplane’s airspeed system should be calibrated against a reference airspeed system.
33.3.1.1.3 A reference airspeed system should consist of either of the following:
1. An airspeed impact pressure and static pressure measurement device (or devices) that are free from error due to airplane angular changes relative to the direction of the free stream or due to slipstream variation resulting from changes in airplane configuration or power/thrust. In addition, the device or devices should have a known calibration error when located in the free stream.
2. Any other acceptable airspeed calibration method (e.g., the altimeter method of airspeed calibration).
33.3.1.1.4 If an alternate system is provided, it may be calibrated against either the reference system or the airplane’s system.
33.3.1.1.5 An acceptable means of compliance when demonstrating a perceptible speed change between 1.23 VSR to stall warning speed (§ 23.1223(d)) is for the rate of change of IAS with CAS to be not less than 0.75.
33.3.1.1.6 An acceptable means of compliance when demonstrating a perceptible speed change between VMO to VMO + 2/3 (VDF - VMO) (§ 23.1323(e)) is for the rate of change of IAS with CAS to be not less than 0.50.
33-1
33.3.1.1.7 Airspeed Lag.
With the advent of electronic instruments in the cockpit, the pneumatic signals from the pitot and static sources are processed and digitized in the Air Data Computer (ADC) and then filtered and transported to the cockpit display. As a result of the data processing and filtering, the associated time lag, and, consequently, airspeed lag at the cockpit display, can be an important consideration in the airspeed indicating system calibration during ground acceleration. As stated in § 25.1323(b), the calibration for an accelerated takeoff ground run must determine the system error, which is the relation between indicated and calibrated airspeeds. The system error is the sum of the pneumatic lag in the pressure lines, airspeed lag due to time lags in processing the data, and static source, position error.
33.3.1.1.8 Airspeed lag should be measured during ground acceleration tests or determined by analysis. Increments should be developed for a range of airplane gross weights considering airspeed lag at V1 and the associated increase in accelerate-stop and takeoff distances due to lag. The error due to lag in the airspeed indicating system during ground acceleration should not be greater than 3.0 knots throughout the takeoff operating envelope of the airplane. Further, an increase in the takeoff distance or the accelerate-stop distance as a result of airspeed lag should not exceed 100 feet. The 3 knots limitation is intended to establish the maximum acceptable systematic error. Even though the lag may be within the 3 knots limit, an airspeed correction may be required to stay within the 100 feet of increased distance.
33.3.1.1.9 Corrections may be applied directly in the ADC or they may be introduced via the ground airspeed calibration provided in the AFM. If corrections are applied directly in the ADC, it is possible to display calibrated airspeed in the cockpit. Further, if acceleration data are input, the airspeed error can be computed and accounted for in real time, assuming the time lag is known. The alternative would be to use an airspeed lag increment derived from calibration tests that would represent a range of conditions within the takeoff envelope. After correction, an increase in distance due to lag should be less than 100 feet throughout the takeoff envelope, whether applied in the ADC or AFM. Consideration should be given to short field, lighter weight takeoffs (higher acceleration), as well as maximum weight and higher V1 speeds, in deriving the increment.
33.3.1.2 Configuration.
Airspeed calibration tests should be conducted in the following configurations:
Weight—between maximum takeoff and maximum landing.
CG position—optional.
Takeoff configuration(s)—ground roll.
33-2
Wing flaps and landing gear—all combinations of positions used to show compliance with the takeoff, climb, and landing requirements of part 25.
Power or thrust—as required.
33.3.2 Procedures.
33.3.2.1 Any one or any desired combination of the procedures in paragraphs
33.3.2.2 or 33.3.2.3 of this AC may be used for calibrating the airspeed indicating system. The airspeed should be measured or determined simultaneously from the airplane’s system and the reference system during stabilized runs for at least five speeds spaced throughout the speed range, the lowest not to exceed 1.23 VSR. The highest speed should not exceed VMO/MMO. The speed spread between the test speeds should be limited to 10 knots from 1.23 VSR to 1.5 VSR or VFE, and 20 knots from 1.5 VSR to VMO.
33.3.2.2 Reference Airspeed System.
Stabilized runs at the test speeds listed in this paragraph should be made.
The airspeed from the airplane’s airspeed system and the reference airspeed system should be read simultaneously. The following data should be recorded:
Time of day.
Airplane’s indicated airspeed.
Reference indicated airspeed.
Pressure altitude.
Ambient air temperature.
Wing flap position.
Landing gear position.
33.3.2.3 Other Acceptable Airspeed Calibration Methods.
Stabilized flight runs at the test speeds should be made, and the necessary data recorded, to establish the airplane’s airspeed system error and the configuration of the airplane. Calibration methods may also include airspeed boom, static trailing cone, and radar range.
33.3.2.4 The procedures presented in this paragraph pertain to the calibration of the airspeed indicating system during takeoff ground acceleration. In particular, airplanes with electronic instruments in the cockpit must account for the airspeed lag at the cockpit display associated with data processing and filtering as required by § 25.1323(g). The airspeed indicating system should not have a lag in excess of 3 knots at the V1 speed during any takeoff condition. Further, if airspeed lag causes an 33-3
increase of more than 100 feet in takeoff or accelerate-stop distances, a lag correction should be applied to the airspeed indicating system. Airspeed lag should be determined by one of the following methods:
33.3.2.4.1 Conduct ground acceleration tests for a range of airplane gross weights to calibrate IAS at the cockpit display against the reference CAS. Determine airspeed lag from the calibration data by comparing the cockpit displayed airspeed with the reference calibration speed for a given gross weight and V1 speed.
33.3.2.4.2 Determine airspeed lag by analysis using a computer program suitable for AFM development. Compute takeoffs for a range of gross weights to determine the acceleration at V1. Calculate airspeed lag at V1 for a corresponding acceleration and a known time lag due to data processing and filtering. The analysis should also consider other sources of airspeed lag as appropriate, such as the pneumatic lag in the pressure lines for the pitot and static sources.
33.3.2.4.3 Having established the calibration data, one acceptable method of adjusting for airspeed lag is to apply corrections directly in the ADC data processing to result in a lag-corrected airspeed at the cockpit display.
Another would be to include an airspeed lag correction in the takeoff ground speed calibration of IAS vs. CAS in the AFM. A single airspeed lag increment can be developed as the correction for the range of gross weights and corresponding accelerations at V1. This increment, when applied to the calibration, should result in no more than a 100-ft increase in takeoff or accelerate-stop distances due to airspeed lag for any takeoff condition. A more accurate correction would result from presenting airspeed lag as a function of airplane acceleration based on the calibration data. If acceleration data are available in the ADC, a real time correction for lag during the takeoff can be applied in the data processing.
33.4 Static Pressure Systems—§ 25.1325(d) and (e).
33.4.1 Explanation.
33.4.1.1 If the altimeter installation is of the pressure type, its operation will be affected by any error that exists in the measurement of the static air pressure. Since the accuracy of the altimeter is of utmost importance, the static air vent system should be calibrated. If separate or alternate vent systems are employed for the altimeter and airspeed indicator, separate calibrations are required. Where the altimeter, rate of climb indicator, and airspeed indicators are vented to the same static systems, the altimeter calibration may be made in conjunction with the airspeed calibrations.
33.4.1.2 The theoretical relationship between airspeed error and altimeter error may be used to derive an altimeter calibration from the airspeed 33-4
calibration, or vice versa, if both use the same static vent, provided any error in total pressure over the angle-of-attack range is taken into account.
33.4.2 Procedures.
None.
33.5 Pitot Heat Indication Systems—§ 25.1326. [Reserved]
33.6 Magnetic Direction Indicator—§ 25.1327. [Reserved]
33.7 Flight Guidance System—§ 25.1329.
33.7.1 Explanation.
33.7.1.1 On most modern airplane installations, the autopilot and flight director are integrated into a single computer, use common control laws, and are identified as a flight guidance system (FGS). The FGS is primarily intended to assist the flightcrew in the basic control and tactical guidance of the airplane. The system may also provide workload relief to the pilots and provide a means to fly a flight path more accurately to support specific operational requirements, such as reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM) or required navigation performance (RNP). To perform these functions, the FGS typically includes an integrated autopilot, autothrust, and flight director. The FGS functions also include flight deck alerting, status, mode annunciations (instrument displays), and associated information displayed to the flightcrew for situation awareness.
Also included are those functions necessary to provide guidance and control with an approach and landing system, such as an instrument landing system (ILS), microwave landing system (MLS), global navigation satellite system (GNSS), or a GNSS landing system (GLS).
Although a HUD system, if installed, is generally a separate system, evaluation of its modes of operation would be identical to a flight director system. For these reasons, the systems flight test evaluation criteria provided here also apply to HUDs.
Note: For applicants considering type certification of a HUD system, we recommend that the flight technical error be characterized during certification testing. This data will be required if the applicant chooses to seek operational credit for advanced performance-based navigation applications.
33.7.1.2 For the purposes of this AC, the FGS includes all the equipment necessary to accomplish the FGS function, including the sensors, computers, power supplies, servo-motors/actuators, and associated wiring. It also includes 33-5
any indications and controllers necessary for the pilot to manage and supervise the system.
33.7.1.3 A flight test program should be established that confirms the performance of the FGS for the modes of operation and the operational capabilities supported by its design. The operational implications of certain failures and failure conditions may require flight evaluation. Also, the pilot interface with FGS controls and displays in the cockpit will need to be assessed. Some aspects of the FGS design may be validated by laboratory test and/or simulator evaluation.
33.7.1.4 The scope of the flight demonstration program will depend on the operational capability being provided, including any new and novel features. Early coordination with the FAA is recommended to reduce certification risks associated with the flight demonstration program. The intent of the flight demonstration program is to confirm that the operation of the FGS is consistent with its use for the intended flight operations of the airplane type and configuration. The modes of the FGS should be demonstrated in representative airplane configurations and under a representative range of flight conditions.
33.7.1.5 Additional guidance material related to FGS operation, testing, and approval is contained in the following ACs:
AC 25-15.
AC 25.1329-1C.
AC 120-28D.
AC 120-29A.
33.7.2 Procedures: General.
33.7.2.1 The evaluation of an FGS should primarily concentrate on the intended function(s) and safe operation of the system. Flight test evaluations supplement analysis, laboratory testing, and simulator testing for showing compliance with the applicable part 25 requirements.
33.7.2.2 The requirement for demonstrating safe operation should include evaluation of FGS failure conditions that a system safety assessment identifies as needing to be validated by flight test.
33.7.2.3 The FGS should be installed and adjusted so that the system tolerances established during certification tests can be maintained in normal operation. This may be addressed by conducting flight tests at the extremes of the tolerances. Those tests conducted to determine that the FGS will adequately control the airplane should establish the lower limit, and those tests to determine that the FGS will not impose dangerous loads 33-6