Chap 2 15 maximum landing weight, the reduced flap certification may be eligible for a limited flight test program (e.g., stall speed verification, handling characteristics, and qualitative landing demonstration). Further limitations may be imposed by the criteria of Technical Standard Order (TSO) C26c ("Aircraft Wheels and Wheel-Brake Assemblies, with Addendum I," dated May 18, 1984), wheel fusible plug energy limits, quick turnaround considerations, the maximum demonstrated kinetic energy level, wheel spin-up loads, etc.
FIGURE 3-2. EQUIVALENT WEIGHT EXTRAPOLATION (B) Wind Limits. For takeoff and landing tests, a wind velocity limit of 10 knots (from any direction) or 0.12VS1 (whichever is lower) at the height of the mean-aerodynamic-chord (MAC), as determined with the airplane in a static ground attitude, has been considered the maximum acceptable. When test wind velocity is to be measured at the wing MAC height, a measurement height of six feet above the ground should be considered as a limit to avoid possible measurement inaccuracies due to surface interference. Because of likely unsteady wind conditions, it is generally considered that takeoff and landing performance data obtained under runway wind conditions greater than 5 knots are likely to be inconsistent and unreliable. If performance data are obtained with winds greater than 5 knots, these data should not necessarily be ignored.
(C) C.G. Limits. A test tolerance of +7 percent of the total c.g. range is intended to allow some practical relief for inflight c.g. movement. This relief is only acceptable when the test data general scatter is on both sides of the limiting c.g. or when
c.g. correction from test c.g. to limit c.g. is acceptable.
(D) Airspeed Limits. Normally, tests conducted within 3 percent or 3 knots (whichever is the higher) of the desired test speed are considered acceptable.
Chap 2 16 (E) Thrust Limits. Thrust critical tests, such as minimum control speeds, should be conducted at the highest thrust (power) allowable on the engine given the constraints of temperature and altitude. It is then permitted to calculate further corrections to allow extrapolation of data to cover the entire operating envelope. These thrust corrections are limited to 5 percent of test day thrust, unless a detailed analysis is performed (see Appendix 3 of this AC).
(iii) Because the tolerance values normally are not considered in the airplane design substantiation, it is not the purpose of these tolerances to allow flights at values in excess of those authorized in the type design. If such flights are to be conducted, adequate structural substantiation for the flight conditions should be available.
These flights, however, are always conducted under controlled conditions and with the flight test crew's full cognizance of the situation. Examples of such flights are:
(A) Takeoff at greater than maximum takeoff weight for the purpose of reaching a test area at the maximum takeoff weight.
(B) Landing at greater than maximum landing weights during the course of conducting takeoff tests.
(C) Flights to obtain data for future approvals beyond that substantiated for the initial type design.
(iv) The table in Figure 3-3 indicates the cases in which corrections are normally allowed. Any corrections to flight test data should be made by methods that are agreed to by the FAA.
FIGURE 3-3. TEST PARAMETERS THAT NORMALLY CAN BE CORRECTED Flight Test Condition Correctable Parameters Wt. C.G. Airspeed Altitude Power/ Thrust Wind Airspeed calibration X --- --- --- --- --- Stall speeds X X --- --- X --- Climb performance X X X X X --- Landing performance X --- X X --- X Takeoff performance X X --- X X X Accelerate-stop perf. X X --- X X X Minimum control speed --- --- --- --- X --- Minimum unstick speed X X X --- X --- Buffet boundary X X --- X --- ---
(v) All instrumentation used in the flight test program should be appropriately calibrated and acceptable to the FAA test team.
Chap 2 17
(4) Section 25.21(f) - Proof of Compliance (Wind Measurement and Corrections). The relationship between the wind measured at one height and the corresponding wind at another height may be obtained by the following equation:
VW2 = VW1(H2/H1)1/7 Where: H = Height above the runway surface VW2 = Wind velocity at H2 VW1 = Wind velocity at H1 This equation is presented graphically below. Values of H less than 5 feet should not be used in this relationship.
FIGURE 3-4. WIND PROFILE VARIATION
(5) Wind Profile Variation for Test Data. The performance data of airplanes should be obtained in such a manner that the effect of wind on the test data may be determined. The test wind velocity should be corrected from the recorded height above the test surface to the height of the airplane wing mean-aerodynamic-chord. If the wind profile variation is not measured, the variation may be calculated using the equation in paragraph (4) above. The following examples are methods of handling wind profile variation data. Other methods have also been found acceptable.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
WIND VELOCITY - KNOTS 10 meters
Chap 2 18 Example: Test Data Given:
o Height of mean-aerodynamic-chord with airplane on surface 8 ft.
o Height of wind measurement 6 ft.
o Measured wind velocity 4.8 kts.
Results:
o Test wind velocity with airplane 50 ft. above landing surface
4.8((50 + 8)/6)1/7 = 6.6 kts.
o Test wind velocity with airplane 35 ft. above takeoff surface
4.8((35 + 8)/6)1/7 = 6.4 kts.
o Test wind velocity with airplane on surface
4.8(8/6)1/7 = 5.0 kts.
(6) Wind Profile Variation for Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) Data. When expanding the data to the AFM conditions, the result should include the effective velocity, at the airplane's wing mean-aerodynamic-chord, which corresponds to the wind condition as measured at 10 meters (32.81 ft.) above the takeoff surface, and corrected for wind factors of § 25.105(d)(1).
Example: Airplane Flight Manual Data Given:
o Height of mean-aerodynamic-chord with airplane on surface 8.0 ft.
o Reported head wind at 10 meters 40.0 kts.
o Section 25.105(d)(1) wind factor 0.5 Results:
o Factored wind velocity with airplane 50 ft. above landing surface
(0.5)(40)((50 + 8)/32.81)1/7 = 21.7 kts.
o Factored wind velocity with airplane 35 ft. above takeoff surface
(0.5)(40)((35 + 8)/32.81)1/7 = 20.8 kts.
o Factored wind velocity with airplane on surface
(0.5)(40)(8/32.81)1/7 = 16.3 kts.
(7) Airplane Airspeed Variation Due to Wind Profile Variation With Simultaneous Speed Changes Due to Airplane Dynamic Performance. In the reduction of test data and in the expansion of such data to AFM conditions, the increase or decrease of speed due to the dynamic effect of the forces on the airplane are manifested by only the change in ground speed. These changes in speed (zero wind speed changes) may be
Chap 2 19 generalized either as speed increments or speed ratios. The changes in airspeed due to wind profile are superimposed on these speed changes.
Example: Takeoff Test Data Given:
o True airspeed at liftoff, VLOF 144 kts.
o True airspeed at 35 ft. above takeoff surface 147 kts.
o Test wind at liftoff 5.0 kts.
o Test wind with airplane 35 ft. above takeoff surface 6.4 kts.
Results:
o Speed change due to airplane dynamic performance, zero wind speed change (V35-VLOF) = (147-6.4)-(144-5.0) 1.6 kts.
Example: Takeoff--Airplane Flight Manual Data Given:
o Factored wind at liftoff 16.3 kts.
o Factored wind with airplane 35 ft. above takeoff surface 20.8 kts.
o Zero wind speed change, (V35-VLOF) 1.6 kts.
o Zero wind speed change, (VLOF-VR) 0.5 kts.
o True airspeed required at 35 ft. 150 kts.
Results:
o Ground speed required at 35 ft. 150-20.8 = 129.2 kts.
o Ground speed at liftoff 129.2-1.6 = 127.6 kts.
o True airspeed at liftoff 127.6+16.3 = 143.9 kts.
o Ground speed at rotation 127.6-0.5 = 127.1 kts.
o True airspeed at rotation (for distance calculations) 127.1+16.3 = 143.4 kts.
o Airplane flight manual rotation speed, true airspeed 150-0.5-1.6 = 147.9 kts.
NOTE: The indicated airspeed at rotation (VR), given in the AFM, should be predicated on the required speed at 35 ft. minus the speed increment (V35-VR) assuming no airspeed change due to wind profile (i.e., use the "zero wind speed change" increments shown above). The proper rotation speed, assuming the airplane will gain 4.5 knots due to wind profile, is 143.4 knots. However, if this airspeed increase does not materialize, the airplane will be slow by 4.5 knots at 35 feet. It is therefore more desirable to allow the airplane to attain this 4.5 knots on the ground. Any reduction in field length margin of safety by this increase in VR is adequately compensated for by the 50 percent wind factor.
Chap 2 20 This also eliminates a requirement to adjust VR for wind. However, in calculating the AFM field lengths, the airspeed attained due to wind profile may be included.
Example: Landing--Airplane Flight Manual Data Given:
o Factored wind with airplane 50 ft. above landing surface 21.7 kts.
o Factored wind with airplane on landing surface 16.3 kts.
o Zero wind speed change for 50 ft. to touchdown (V50-VTD) 4.0 kts.
o True airspeed required at 50 ft. 130 kts.
Results:
o Ground speed at 50 ft. 130-21.7 = 108.3 kts.
o Ground speed at touchdown 108.3-4.0 = 104.3 kts.
o True airspeed at touchdown 104.3+16.3 = 120.6 kts.
(8) Expansion of Takeoff Data for a Range of Airport Elevations.
(i) These guidelines are applicable to expanding takeoff data above the altitude at which the basic or verifying tests were obtained.
(ii) In general, takeoff data may be extrapolated above and below the altitude at which the basic test data was obtained without additional conservatism within certain constraints. The extrapolation limits and constraints for expansion of the measured takeoff performance parameters (e.g., data used to develop V/VS=f(T/W)) to operating altitudes is addressed in sub-paragraph 3a(9)(iii), below. Extrapolation of takeoff performance data may be further limited by engine data extrapolation limits, typically to 3,000 feet above the highest altitude at which engine parameters were evaluated for the pertinent power/thrust setting. (See paragraph 9 of this AC for more information on engine testing and data extrapolation.) Certification testing for operation at airports that are above 8,000 feet should also include functional tests of the cabin pressurization system in accordance with paragraph 87b(3) of the AC.
(iii) When the basic takeoff test data are obtained between sea level and approximately 3,000 ft., the maximum allowable extrapolation limits are 6,000 ft. above, and 3,000 ft. below, the test field elevation. If it is desired to extrapolate beyond these limits, when proven data reduction and expansion methods are used, one of the two following procedures may be employed:
(A) Extrapolation of Performance Data for a Range of Altitudes When Verifying Tests are Not Conducted. The approval of performance data for airport elevations beyond the maximum elevation permitted by basic tests may be allowed without conducting verifying tests, if the calculated data include a conservative factor.
This conservatism should result in an increase of the calculated takeoff distance at the
Chap 2 21 desired airport elevations by an amount equal to zero percent for the highest airport elevation approved on the results of the basic tests, and an additional cumulative 2 percent incremental factor for each 1,000 ft. of elevation above the highest airport elevation approved for zero percent conservatism. The 2 percent incremental factor should have a straight line variation with altitude. When performance data are calculated for the effects of altitude under this procedure, the following provisions are applicable:
(1) Previously established calculation procedures should be used, taking into account all known variables.
(2) The calibrated installed engine power for the pertinent speed and altitude ranges should be used.
(3) The brake kinetic energy limits established by airplane ground tests should not be exceeded.
(B) Extrapolation of Performance Data When Verifying Tests Are Conducted.
(1) If data approval is desired for a greater range of airport elevations, the performance may be calculated from the basic test data up to the maximum airport elevation, provided verifying tests are conducted at appropriate elevations to substantiate the validity of the calculations. The actual airplane performance data from the verifying tests should correspond closely to the calculated performance values.
(2) For the verifying tests, it has been found that normally three takeoffs at maximum weights for the elevations tested will provide adequate verification.
(3) If verifying tests substantiate the expanded takeoff data, the data may be further expanded up to 6,000 ft. above the altitude at which the verifying tests were conducted. At altitudes higher than 6,000 ft. above the verifying test altitude, the 2 percent per 1,000 ft. cumulative factor discussed in paragraph 3a(9)(iii)(A), above, should be applied, starting at zero percent at the verifying test altitude plus 6,000 feet.
(9) Expansion of Landing Data for a Range of Airport Elevations.
(i) For turbine powered airplanes without propellers, the landing distance data may be extrapolated to more than 6,000 ft. above the test altitude without the penalty described in paragraph 3a(9), provided the true airspeed effect on the distance is accounted for.
(ii) For turbopropeller and reciprocating engine-powered airplanes, the extrapolated performance should include the conservative factor described in paragraph 3a(9). This may not be necessary if it can be shown that the effects of altitude on the
Chap 2 22 landing performance, as affected by propeller drag, are known from data available for the airplane configuration.
(10) Tailwind Takeoff and Landing.
(i) Wind Velocities of 10 Knots or Less - Approval may be given for performance, controllability, and engine operating characteristics for operations in reported tailwind velocities up to 10 knots, measured at a 10 meter height, without specific flight tests.
(ii) Wind Velocities Greater than 10 Knots.
(A) Performance. It is considered that takeoff, rejected takeoff, and landing distances, measured in tailwind conditions greater than 10 knots, are unreliable for use in determining airplane performance. Wind conditions of such magnitude are generally not sufficiently consistent over the length of the runway or over the time period required to perform the test maneuver. The 150 percent operational tailwind velocity factor, required by §§ 25.105(d)(1) and 25.125(e), affords a satisfactory method for determination of airplane takeoff and landing performance information and limitations up to a limiting tailwind velocity of 15 knots when using a flight test data base obtained under zero wind conditions.
NOTE: The design requirements of § 25.479 (Level landing conditions) also require the effects of increased contact speeds to be investigated if approval for landings with tailwinds greater than 10 knots is desired.
(B) Control Characteristics. Airplane control characteristics should be evaluated under the following conditions with the center of gravity at the aft limit and the test tailwind velocity equal to the proposed limit tailwind factored by 150 percent:
(1) Takeoff. At light weight with maximum approved takeoff flap deflection, both all-engines operating and one-engine inoperative takeoffs should be evaluated.
(2) Landing. Approach and landing at light weight with maximum approved landing flap deflection.
(3) Determination of the increased ground speed effect on gear vibration, shimmy, flight director and/or autopilot Instrument Landing System (ILS) approaches, Ground Proximity Warning Systems (GPWS) sink rate modes, etc.
(4) If engine idle thrust is increased to account for the increased tailwind velocity, ensure that deviations above the glideslope are recoverable.
(C) Weight Limits. In accordance with the requirements of §§
25.105(d)(1) and 25.125(e), maximum takeoff weight and maximum quick turnaround
Chap 2 23 weight should be determined using brake energies and tire speeds, as appropriate, calculated with the limit tailwind velocity factored by 150 percent.
(D) Engine Operating Characteristics. Satisfactory engine operation should be demonstrated at the limit tailwind velocity factored by 150 percent. The demonstrations should include:
(1) Zero groundspeed operation.
(2) Takeoff power setting procedure used for AFM performance (typically completed by approximately 80 knots), both manually and automatically (autothrottle).
(3) Reverse thrust operations.
(E) Airplane Flight Manual. The AFM should contain a statement that the limitation for tailwinds greater than 10 knots reflects the capability of the airplane as evaluated in terms of airworthiness but does not constitute approval for operation in tailwinds exceeding 10 knots.
b. Procedures.
(1) The performance-related flight test procedures are discussed in each of the following paragraphs of this AC:
10. Takeoff and Takeoff Speeds 15. Climb: General
11. Accelerate-Stop Distance 16. Landing Climb
12. Takeoff Path 17. Climb: One Engine Inoperative
13. Takeoff Distance and Takeoff Run 18. Enroute Flight Path
14. Takeoff Flight Path 19. Landing
(2) Performance Data for Multiple Flap or Additional Flap Positions. If approval of performance data is requested for flap settings at which no test data is available, the data may be obtained from interpolation of flight data obtained at no less than four flap settings which are within a constant configuration of other lift devices. If the span of flap settings is small and previously obtained data provides sufficient confidence (i.e., the shape of the curves are known and lend themselves to accurate interpolation), data from three flap settings may be acceptable.
(3) Flight Characteristics for Abnormal Configurations (Ref. § 25.671(c)).
(i) For purposes of this AC, an abnormal configuration is an operational configuration that results from any single failure or any combination of failures not shown to be improbable.
Chap 2 24
(ii) Flight characteristics for abnormal configurations may be determined by test or analysis to assure that the airplane is capable of continued safe flight and landing. Flight tests, if required, should be conducted at the critical conditions of altitude, weight, c.g., and engine thrust associated with the configuration, and at the most critical airspeed between stall warning (see paragraph 29d(2)(ix) of this AC) and the maximum operating airspeed for the configuration.
4.-7. [RESERVED]
Chap 2 25
8. PROPELLER SPEED AND PITCH LIMITS - § 25.33.
a. Explanation. None.
b. Procedures. The tachometers and the airspeed indicating system of the test airplane must have been calibrated in the last six months. With those conditions satisfied, the following should be accomplished:
(1) Determine that the propeller speeds and pitch settings are safe and satisfactory during all tests that are conducted in the flight test program within the certification limits of the airplane, engine, and propeller. This includes establishing acceptable low pitch (flight idle) blade angles on turbopropeller airplanes and verifying that propeller configurations are satisfactory at VMO/MMO to prevent propeller overspeed.
(2) Determine that the propeller speeds and pitch settings are safe and satisfactory during all tests that are conducted to satisfy the performance requirements.
(3) With the propeller governors operative and the propeller controls in full high r.p.m. position, determine that the maximum takeoff power settings do not exceed the rated takeoff r.p.m. of each engine during takeoff and climb at the best rate-of-climb speed.
(4) With the propeller governors made inoperative by mechanical means, maximum power, no-wind, static r.p.m.'s must be determined. On reciprocating engines with the propeller governors operating on the low pitch stop, the engine speeds must not exceed 103 percent of the maximum allowable takeoff r.p.m. On turbopropeller engines, the engine speeds must not exceed the maximum engine speeds allowed by engine and propeller type designs. Note which systems were disabled and how the disablement was done. If maximum takeoff power torque or sea level standard conditions cannot be obtained on the test day, the data must be corrected to these conditions by an acceptable means. A no-wind condition is considered to be a wind of 5 knots or less. The static
r.p.m. should be the average obtained with a direct crosswind from the left and a direct crosswind from the right.
(5) If the above determinations are satisfactory, the low-pitch stop setting and also the high-pitch stop setting must be measured. These data may have been obtained from the propeller manufacturer and may be used, provided the pitch stops have not been changed since the manufacturer delivered the propeller. If measured, the blade station should be recorded. These blade angles must be included in the Type Certificate Data Sheet.
Chap 2 26 Section 2. PERFORMANCE
9. GENERAL - § 25.101
a. Explanation - Engine Behavior . Section 25.101(c) requires that airplane “performance must correspond to the propulsive thrust available under the particular ambient atmospheric conditions, the particular flight conditions….” Therefore, engine parameter evaluations, engine torque, thrust lapse, propeller thrust, and throttle sensitivity, especially with the Electronic Control Unit off (if installed), should be accounted for at all altitudes up to and including the maximum approved takeoff altitude.
b. Procedures . This aspect of the rule may be accomplished by actual flight test, with approved takeoff ratings, at the maximum desired takeoff altitude, or with acceptable parameter variation analysis associated with tests conducted at less than the maximum objective takeoff altitude.
(1) One acceptable method of demonstrating high altitude engine operability and performance is to simulate the maximum operating altitude conditions by overboosting (i.e., using a higher than normal power setting) at a lower altitude.
(2) It is the applicant’s responsibility, in conjunction with the engine manufacturer, to define the test plan for the engine parameter evaluation up to the maximum approved takeoff altitude. Supportive data from the engine manufacturer on the same “type or series” of engine may also be included to reduce the amount of testing conducted.
(3) Extrapolation of engine performance data to 3,000 feet above the highest altitude tested (up to the maximum takeoff altitude to be approved) has been accepted, provided the supportive data, including the flight testing accomplished, establishes a consistent baseline.
(4) Detailed guidance for the testing necessary to show compliance with § 25.101(c) may be found in Advisory Circular 25-XX, “Turbojet Operations at High Altitude Airports,” dated (to be released).
10. TAKEOFF AND TAKEOFF SPEEDS - §§ 25.105 AND 25.107 (PART 25 AS AMENDED THROUGH AMENDMENT 25-42) .
a. Explanation. The primary objective of the takeoff tests required by § 25.107 is to determine the takeoff speed schedule for all takeoff configurations at all weight, altitude, and temperature conditions within the operational limits selected by the applicant. The provisions of § 25.105 are self-evident and are not repeated or amplified in this discussion. Guidance material for unpaved runway evaluation is contained in Chapter 8 (paragraph 234) of this Advisory Circular (AC).
b. Procedures . Although the following speed definitions are given in terms of calibrated airspeed, the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) presentations shall be given in terms of indicated airspeed. Attention should be paid to all potential sources of airspeed error, but special consideration should be given to airplanes with electronic instruments in the cockpit that apply electronic filtering to the airspeed data. This filtering, which causes a time delay in the airspeed indication, can be a source of significant systematic error in the presentation of airspeed to the flightcrew. During a normal takeoff acceleration, the airplane will be at a higher speed than is indicated by the cockpit instrument, which can result in longer distances than are presented in the AFM, particularly in the event of a rejected takeoff near the indicated V 1 speed.
The effects of any time delays caused by electronic filtering, pneumatic system lag, or other sources should be adequately addressed in the AFM speed and distance presentations. Further explanation of airspeed lag, particularly pertaining to airplanes with electronic instruments in the cockpit, and procedures for calibrating the airspeed indicating system (§ 25.1323(b)) are presented in paragraph 177 of this AC.
(1) Section 25.107(a)(1) - Engine Failure Speed ( VEF). The engine failure speed (V EF) is defined as the calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail and must be selected by the