42-6 approved takeoff power or thrust settings, and the AFM performance is based on the power or thrust developed at these new, lower power or thrust settings.
42.2.1.2 A constant reduced power or thrust increment can be used for all operating conditions. In this method the engine parameter by which power or thrust is set is reduced by a constant, such as an engine pressure ratio increment (ΔEPR) of 0.02. A method is supplied to determine the airplane’s takeoff performance, at this reduced power or thrust level, from the AFM data representative of full takeoff power or thrust.
42.2.1.3 The assumed temperature method of reduced power or thrust takeoff operations entails using takeoff performance information determined for an “assumed” temperature above ambient, but not above the temperature at which the takeoff weight would be limited by the takeoff field length available for a particular airport runway or by FAA climb requirements.
Engine power or thrust settings, takeoff speed schedules, takeoff field lengths, and climb performance are determined at the assumed temperature. This assumed temperature method is the most flexible in its application and the most widely used by transport category airplane manufacturers and operators.
42.2.2 Procedures.
Because there is a reduction in the takeoff performance level when any of the derated or reduced power or thrust methods are used, the FAA has certain limitations on the use of these reduced power or thrust levels. The appropriate guidance for derated and reduced power or thrust approvals, including limitations and procedures, is presented in AC 25-13.
42.3 Runway Gradients Greater than ±2 Percent.
42.3.1 Applicable Regulations.
Sections 25.105, 25.115, 25.119, 25.121, 25.125, 25.1533, and 25.1587.
42.3.2 Explanation.
The sections of part 25, referenced above, require accounting for the effects of runway gradient. Typically, performance limitations and information are determined for runway gradients up to ±2 percent in the AFM expansion of test data. Though these gradient extremes are adequate for addressing the majority of runways, there are a number of airports frequented by transport category airplanes that have runway slopes greater than ±2 percent. Consequently, approvals have been granted for operations on runways with slopes exceeding ±2 percent with specific testing and analysis validation for the effects of the higher slopes. Additional concerns, beyond runway slope effect on acceleration and braking and proper accounting of elevations during obstacle clearance analysis, include takeoff flare from liftoff to 35 feet, minimum takeoff climb gradients, minimum
42-7 approach and landing climb gradients, landing flare distances, and unique operating procedures.
42.3.3 Procedures.
42.3.3.1 Takeoff Flare from Liftoff to 35 Feet.
The AFM expansion of the takeoff data should account for the effect of the runway slope on the portion of the takeoff distance after liftoff. At climb performance-limiting thrust-to-weight ratios, the average gradient of climb will be on the order of 2.0 to 3.0 percent. On a downhill runway of sufficient magnitude, the airplane could attain a height of 35 feet above the runway and have a positive gradient of climb relative to it, but its flight path may continue to descend beyond that point. The transition from liftoff to climbing flight, in the sense of an ascending flight path, should be adequately addressed with respect to obstacle clearance analysis data.
42.3.3.2 Minimum Takeoff Climb Gradients.
At limiting thrust-to-weight ratios, the transition to free air (i.e., out of ground effect) takeoff climb could result in steep uphill runways rising faster than the airplane’s ability to climb. The minimum second segment takeoff climb gradient should maintain the same margin, relative to the increased maximum uphill runway slope, that exists between the minimum gradient specified in § 25.121 and a two percent uphill runway.
42.3.3.3 Minimum Approach and Landing Climb Gradients.
Balked landing go-arounds, at climb limited landing weights, could also result in an uphill runway rising faster than the airplane’s ability to climb.
The minimum approach and landing climb gradients should maintain the same margins, relative to the increased maximum uphill runway slope, that exist between the minimum gradients specified in §§ 25.119 and
25.121 and a two percent uphill runway.
42.3.3.4 Landing Technique and Distance.
Final approaches to steep uphill runways will require early flare initiation, to avoid hard landings, and landing flare air distances will be increased for approaches to steep downhill runways using normal approach descent angles. The AFM operating procedures should describe any special piloting technique required for landing on steep runways. The AFM expansion of landing distances should account for the effect of runway gradient, including any expected increase in flare distances, from 50 feet to touchdown, for steep downhill runways.
42.3.3.5 Operating Procedures.
Operating procedures should be provided in the AFM for operations on runways with gradients greater than ±2 percent. Guidance should be provided on takeoff rotation and landing flare techniques.
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42.3.3.6 Operational Considerations.
For runway slopes greater than ±3 percent, the specific airport(s) should be investigated relative to runway lengths and surrounding terrain and obstacles. Airport-specific operating limitations may be necessary, such as: direction of takeoff and landing, takeoff flap restrictions, prohibition of overspeed takeoffs on downhill runways, requirement for the anti-skid system to be operative and on, and restrictions on engine bleed air and power extraction.
42.3.3.7 Flight Test Requirements.
For approval of certification data for runway slopes exceeding ±3 percent, operational flight tests should be conducted to verify the proposed procedures and performance information.
42.4 Criteria for Approval of Steep Approach to Landing.
42.4.1 Applicable Regulations.
Sections 25.119, 25.121, 25.125, and 25.143.
42.4.2 Explanation.
42.4.2.1 Airworthiness Approval.
The standard approach angle assumed as part of the type certification of transport category airplanes is 3°, which coincides with the nominal ILS approach angle. Those evaluations are considered adequate to address approach angles of less than 4.5°. The criteria listed below represent FAA policy for airworthiness approval of steep approach landing capability using an approach angle of 4.5° or more. Additions or deletions to these criteria may be needed to address specific design features. It should be noted in the AFM that the presentation of the steep approach limitations, procedures, and performance information reflects the capability of the airplane to perform steep approaches, but does not constitute operational approval.
42.4.2.2 Operational Approval.
Operational approval to conduct steep approaches in the United States is the exclusive responsibility of FAA Flight Standards Service, and cannot be delegated to FAA Aircraft Certification Service employees, designees, or to foreign civil aviation authorities. FAA Flight Standards Service has assigned this responsibility to the Flight Standardization Board (FSB) with oversight for the airplane type in question. Operational approval will, in part, be based on the results of the airworthiness testing described in this section. Additional testing, for operational concerns, may be combined with the airworthiness testing. Ideally, the testing for operational approval
42-9 would be conducted by the Flight Standardization Board during the test program for airworthiness certification of steep approach capability.
42.4.3 General Criteria.
42.4.3.1 If approval is sought to conduct steep approaches in icing conditions, compliance with the part 25 requirements applicable to steep approach operations identified below should also be shown for icing conditions.
42.4.3.2 The following criteria apply when showing compliance with § 25.125 for steep approaches:
42.4.3.2.1 The airplane should be in the landing configuration used for steep approaches.
42.4.3.2.2 Compliance with the requirement that a stable approach be conducted to a height of 50 feet with a speed not less than VREF (§ 25.125(b)(2)) should be shown with an approach path angle not exceeding the maximum for which approval is sought. The VREF used for steep approaches may be different than the VREF used for normal approaches.
42.4.3.2.3 If the parametric method of determining the landing distance is used (see paragraph 4.11.2.3 of this AC), approach angles should be appropriate to the steep approach path angle desired, and the touchdown sink rate for data expansion should be limited to 6 feet per second.
42.4.3.3 The landing distance established under § 25.125(a) begins at a point 50 feet above the landing surface. If an applicant proposes to use a different height for the beginning of the steep approach landing distance, this must be done through an equivalent level of safety finding, in accordance with § 21.21(b)(1), or an exemption, in accordance with part
11. This has been done in some steep approach certifications to take advantage of precision approach guidance at an airport that guides the airplane to a height over the runway threshold of less than 50 feet.
42.4.3.4 Compliance with §§ 25.119 and 25.121(d) should be shown using the configurations and speeds established for steep approach operations.
42.4.4 Test Conditions for Reasonably Expected Variations in Approach Speed and Path Angle.
The following additional criteria should be applied to show that the airplane is safely controllable and maneuverable during landing (§ 25.143(a)(5)):
42.4.4.1 Under calm air conditions, demonstrate that it is possible to complete an approach, touchdown, and stop without displaying any hazardous characteristics in the following conditions:
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42.4.4.1.1 An approach path angle 2° steeper than the steepest approach path angle for which approval is sought at the VREF established for a steep approach;
and
42.4.4.1.2 The steepest approach path angle for which approval is sought at a speed 5 knots lower than the VREF established for a steep approach.
42.4.4.2 For both conditions in paragraphs 42.4.4.1.1 and 42.4.4.1.2 above:
42.4.4.2.1 The airplane should be loaded to the most critical weight and CG combination;
42.4.4.2.2 The airplane should be in the steep approach configuration;
42.4.4.2.3 The rate of descent should be reduced to no more than 3 feet per second at touchdown;
42.4.4.2.4 Below a height of 200 feet, no action should be taken by the pilot to increase power or thrust, apart from those small changes needed to maintain an accurate approach;
42.4.4.2.5 After initiating the flare, the longitudinal control should not be used to depress the nose apart from those small changes necessary to maintain a continuous and consistent flare flight path;
42.4.4.2.6 The flare, touchdown, and landing should not require exceptional piloting skill, alertness, or strength; and
42.4.4.2.7 To ensure adequate capability for a go-around or down path adjustment, the engines should remain above flight idle power or thrust when stabilized on the approach path.
Note: The 2° steeper approach path angle demonstration is to account for tailwinds on the approach and to take into account necessary corrections back to the desired approach path after inadvertent excursions. The purpose of the test at VREF minus 5 knots is to account for an unnoticed speed decrease during the approach, hence the requirement in paragraph 42.4.4.2.4 for no power or thrust increase to account for the slower speed.
42.4.4.3 For flight test safety reasons, when conducting the 2° steeper approach path angle test condition of paragraph 42.4.4.1.1, the pilot may begin to flare the airplane (or reduce the approach angle) at a reasonable height somewhat higher than the normal steep approach flare height. If this is done, it should be shown by analysis that there is sufficient pitch control to arrest the descent rate if the flare were to be initiated at the normal steep approach flare height, keeping in mind the criteria in paragraphs 42.4.4.2.3 and 42.4.4.2.6.
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42.4.4.4 Compliance with § 25.143(b)(1) should be assessed as follows:
Demonstrate that the airplane can both safely land and safely transition to a go-around following a failure of the critical engine at any point in the approach under the following conditions:
42.4.4.4.1 The steepest approach angle for which approval is sought;
42.4.4.4.2 The VREF established for a steep approach; and
42.4.4.4.3 The most critical combination of weight and CG; and
42.4.4.4.4 For propeller powered airplanes, the propeller of the inoperative engine should be in the position it would normally assume without any action taken by the pilot following an engine failure.
42.4.4.5 The height loss experienced during the maneuver described in paragraph 42.4.4.3 should be determined.
42.4.5 One-Engine-Inoperative Steep Approach.
If approval is sought for one-engine-inoperative steep approach capability, the following criteria should be met at the most critical weight and CG position, using the configuration and speed established for a one-engine-inoperative steep approach:
42.4.5.1 The demonstrations identified in paragraph 42.4.4 above; and
42.4.5.2 Demonstrate that the airplane can safely transition to a go-around during a one-engine-inoperative steep approach.
42.4.6 Airplane Flight Manual.
In accordance with §§ 25.1581, 25.1583, 25.1585, and 25.1587, the following information must be provided in the AFM:
42.4.6.1 Limitations, operating procedures, and performance information necessary for steep approach operations, including the configuration(s), speeds and flight path angle(s) approved for conducting a steep approach; and
42.4.6.2 Operating limitations prohibiting initiation of a steep approach:
42.4.6.2.1 With one engine inoperative, unless the airplane is approved for one-engine-inoperative steep approaches; and
42.4.6.2.2 In forecast or known icing conditions unless the airplane is approved for conducting steep approaches in icing conditions.
42.4.6.3 A statement in the limitations section that the steep approach limitations, procedures, and performance information reflect the capability of the airplane to perform a steep approach, but do not constitute operational approval to conduct steep approach operations.
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42.4.6.4 The height loss determined in accordance with paragraph 42.4.4.4.
42.5 Takeoff and Landing on Unpaved Runways.
42.5.1 Explanation.
There are no specific regulatory requirements or established guidance material pertaining to transport category airplane airworthiness certification for operations on runway surfaces other than smooth and hard. However, several transport category airplanes have been certificated by the FAA for operation on various kinds of unpaved runways, including sod, dirt, and gravel. The following general guidance for airplane certification, for operation on unpaved surfaces, reflects the experience and policy developed during those certification programs.
42.5.2 Procedures.
The considerations described in paragraphs 42.5.2.1 through 42.5.2.6 below should be addressed in obtaining approval for operation of transport category airplanes on unpaved runways.
42.5.2.1 Surface Definition.
Each type of surface should be defined so that it can be recognized, controlled, and maintained in service. The definition should include specification characteristics of the surface necessary for safe operation, such as:
42.5.2.1.1 Surface and sub-base bearing strength, usually expressed in terms of California bearing ratio (CBR). Measurements wet and dry every 500 feet along the runway centerline and 15 to 30 feet either side of the centerline have been used. Other means of defining the suitability of a runway surface to the operation of a particular airplane exist that classify runways based on their load bearing capability; one example is the Aircraft Classification Number (ACN) employed by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
42.5.2.1.2 Thickness, aggregate size, and depth of the surface material.
42.5.2.1.3 Presence of rutting.
42.5.2.1.4 Drainage.
42.5.2.1.5 Presence of surface vegetation.
42.5.2.2 Airplane Performance.
If special equipment (e.g., low pressure tires, shields, deflectors) or special procedures are required, the effect of such equipment and/or procedures on airplane performance should be determined and presented in the AFM;
for example, landing gear retraction time may increase if deflectors are
42-13 installed on the landing gear, necessitating changes to AFM first segment climb data.
42.5.2.2.1 Takeoff, accelerate-stop, and landing performance should be demonstrated and scheduled in accordance with the appropriate airworthiness requirements based on each type of unpaved runway surface for which approval is requested. The flight test demonstrations should be conducted on both wet and dry surfaces. An abbreviated series of test conditions, relative to the test requirements of a conventional smooth, hard-surface runway test program, may be acceptable if reliable adjustments for all flap settings can be established to derive these data from the smooth, hard surface performance data. However, a minimum of four conditions each for takeoff, accelerate-stop, and landing should be conducted, and the heaviest weight demonstrated for takeoff and landing will establish the weight limitations for those modes of operation.
42.5.2.2.2 The test runway should be the actual runway for which approval is requested or be chosen to represent the worst characteristics (i.e., high rolling friction, low braking friction, etc.) of each type of unpaved runway for which approval is sought. In this regard, it may not be sufficient to conduct these tests from a runway with a low CBR. Previous tests have shown that rolling friction is primarily a function of CBR, but braking friction is primarily a function of runway surface characteristics and largely independent of CBR and, in some cases, whether the surface is wet or dry. The effects of other variables such as airplane weight and tolerances on recommended tire pressure should also be determined.
42.5.2.2.3 A VMCG demonstration should be conducted. Rudder pedal nose wheel steering may be used, provided the runway surface for the test represents the worst case anticipated for operation. The aerodynamic moment applied to the airplane by the rudder, combined with the use of rudder pedal nose wheel steering, may result in the nose wheel plowing the unpaved runway surface. This can result in the runway surface elements impacting critical airframe and powerplant surfaces. The test should be closely monitored to ensure this damage source does not exist. If the test is conducted with rudder pedal nose wheel steering:
Credit may be taken for any performance benefit provided; and Dispatch without it is prohibited, regardless of whether credit for any performance benefit is taken.
42.5.2.2.4 Landing flare and touchdown characteristics should be evaluated during the landing performance tests.
42.5.2.2.5 Climb performance should account for any additional drag or power/thrust loss due to special equipment installations.
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42.5.2.3 Airplane Handling.
Airplane handling characteristics must meet the appropriate airworthiness requirements in each configuration specified for operation. Any special procedures or techniques associated with unpaved runway operation, such as use of thrust reversers, brakes, nose wheel steering, etc., should be identified.
42.5.2.4 Systems, Engine, and Structure.
42.5.2.4.1 It should be demonstrated that systems whose normal functions may be affected by operation from unpaved runways (e.g., anti-skid, nose wheel steering) continue to perform their intended function under all conditions for which approval is requested.
42.5.2.4.2 It should be determined that the airplane can be operated on each defined surface without hazard from likely impingement or engine ingestion of gravel or other surface material. In demonstrating that there is no hazard, consideration should be given to immediate effects such as mechanical damage, and to longer term effects, such as accumulation of loose runway material. These accumulations could cause jamming of flight controls, prevent configuration changes, or cause blockage of cooling ducts or drains. Also, sandblasting effects, from materials thrown by the tires, on the wings, propellers, and fuselage may result in surface erosion that, in time, may lead to more serious structural damage. To address these concerns, the test airplane, its engines, and any relevant systems should be inspected for surface damage after each accelerate-stop test and each takeoff/landing cycle.
42.5.2.4.3 The effect on landing gear fatigue life, due to operation on unpaved runway surfaces, should be determined.
42.5.2.4.4 It should be demonstrated that any special equipment, such as gravel deflectors or low pressure tires, does not adversely affect any of the AFM performance or ground handling characteristics previously established for the airplane on hard surface runways (e.g., water spray ingestion characteristics of the airplane).
42.5.2.5 Maintenance.
42.5.2.5.1 Any revised airplane maintenance procedures, such as increased frequency of inspections considered necessary to ensure safe operation of the airplane, should be determined and scheduled.
42.5.2.5.2 Runway maintenance procedures specific to the unpaved surface should be determined and scheduled (e.g., grading and sanding at, and just beyond, the touchdown point, and in the area where takeoff power or
42-15 thrust is set, if those areas may be contaminated with ice or compact snow).
42.5.2.6 Airplane Flight Manual.
42.5.2.6.1 The limitations, procedures, and performance information for unpaved runway operation should be presented in an AFM appendix or supplement.
42.5.2.6.2 The limitations section should include runway surface definitions as established under paragraph 42.5.2.1 above, for which the airplane has been approved to operate and for which suitable performance data has been determined and scheduled in accordance with paragraph 42.5.2.2 above. Approved airplane configurations, including any special equipment required, along with system limitations, should also be included. The following takeoff and landing limitations should be stated:
Reduced power or thrust takeoffs are prohibited.
Dispatch with an inoperative anti-skid system is prohibited.
Dispatch with inoperative spoilers/lift dumpers is prohibited.
Use of continuous ignition is required during the takeoff.
42.5.2.6.3 The procedures section should include any special procedures (e.g., use of thrust reversers, nose wheel steering, rolling takeoff, air conditioning/pressurization configuration).
42.5.2.6.4 The performance section should include the performance determined and approved under paragraph 42.5.2.2 above, accounting for any special procedures required. No credit for clearway and/or stopway should be allowed.
42.6 Accounting for Performance Effects of Minor Design Changes and Configuration Deviation List Items.
42.6.1 Explanation.
Minor changes to the type design that involve changes to the exterior of the airplane
(e.g., installation of wing tip-mounted emblem lights) and configuration deviation list (CDL) items (e.g., missing flap hinge covers) have aerodynamic effects and therefore can adversely affect airplane performance. These effects should be assessed and performance decrements identified as applicable.
42.6.2 Procedures.
The methods described below have been found acceptable for assessing the performance decrement that should be applied. These methods are considered as being a conservative alternative to a complete flight test analysis.
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42.6.2.1 Analytically assess the performance degradation of an aerodynamic configuration change by estimating the drag value and then doubling that value. The resulting degradations in takeoff performance, en route climb, and approach/landing climb capability should be determined in terms of airplane weight. For airplanes with maximum takeoff gross weights not exceeding 20,000 lbs, performance weight decrements less than
0.5 percent of maximum takeoff weight for the takeoff and en route cases (or 0.5 percent of maximum landing weight for the approach/landing climb cases) may be considered negligible. For airplanes with maximum takeoff gross weights greater than 20,000 lbs, performance weight decrements of 100 lbs or less may be considered negligible. The AFM supplement or CDL appendix should identify those type design changes or CDL items that result in a negligible performance degradation. If the performance degradation is not considered negligible, the appropriate performance penalty (in terms of a weight and/or climb gradient capability, as appropriate) should be provided. For design changes, this information should be provided as a limitation in the AFM supplement.
For CDL items, this information should be provided in the CDL appendix, along with the information described under General Limitations in paragraph 42.7.3 of this AC.
42.6.2.2 An alternative method of analytically assessing the performance degradation is to implement conservatism throughout the analysis through conservative round offs and chart readings, using worst-case assumptions, etc. The performance weight decrements are then implemented as noted in paragraph 42.6.2.1 above.
42.7 Configuration Deviation List.
42.7.1 Explanation.
The parts and/or combinations of parts permitted to be missing, and the associated performance decrements and other limitations, must be determined and presented in the AFM CDL.
42.7.2 Procedures.
42.7.2.1 The effect of the missing part should be evaluated to determine if an airplane performance decrement and/or other limitation(s) must be applied to ensure that there is no safety effect. A missing part that affects structural safety, results in damage to other parts, or causes the loss of required safety features is ineligible to be included in the CDL. For example, access panels that, if missing, could affect fire detection, extinguishing, and containment characteristics, are not eligible for listing as CDL items.
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42.7.2.2 Performance decrements should be computed as described in paragraph 42.6 of this AC. A single decrement applicable to all AFM performance limitations may be presented; or, subject to the following restrictions, performance decrements may be presented for different flight phases:
42.7.2.2.1 Only a single performance decrement for takeoff and a single performance decrement for landing will be permitted. For takeoff, the decrement should be the greatest decrement considering takeoff field length, first, second, and final segment climbs, and takeoff flight path. For landing, the decrement should be the greatest decrement considering approach climb, landing climb, and landing field length.
42.7.2.2.2 Only a single weight decrement for the one-engine-inoperative and two-engine-inoperative en route climb performance will be permitted.
42.7.2.2.3 The CDL should contain explanations of the takeoff performance decrement, the landing performance decrement, and the en route performance decrement, as appropriate for the airplane, when the three decrements are used.
42.7.2.3 No reduction in VMO/MMO will be needed if it can be shown by flight test that: (1) no significant changes of flight characteristics or other adverse airworthiness effects exist up to VMO/MMO; and (2) a rational analysis is made for speeds up to VD/MD to show no deterioration of airplane control characteristics. The rational analysis should be based primarily on the proximity of the missing part to aerodynamic surfaces. If a reduction in VMO/MMO is needed, the maximum allowable airspeed indicator and aural warning, required by § 25.1303(b)(1) and (c)(1), must be rescheduled for the reduced speed.
42.7.3 General Limitations.
The following information should be presented in the CDL appendix:
42.7.3.1 When the airplane is operated using the CDL, it must be operated in accordance with the limitations specified in the AFM, as amended in the CDL.
42.7.3.2 Any associated operating limitations (e.g., speed, altitude, or performance limitations) should be listed on a placard affixed in the cockpit in clear view of the pilot in command and other appropriate crewmember(s).
42.7.3.3 For operations using a dispatch or flight release not prepared by the pilot in command, the pilot in command should be notified of each operation with a missing part(s) by listing the missing part(s) in the flight or dispatch release.