AC65-9A Airframe 4 Powerplant
MECHANICS
GENERAL HANDBOOK
CONSOLIDATED
REPRINT (includes CHG 1, dated 3/31/99) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
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AIRFRAME AND POWERPLANT
MECHANICS
GENERAL HANDBOOK U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service First Edition 1970 First Revision 1976 For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328 . :~\
PREFACE This handbook was developed and first printed in 1970 as one of a series of three handbooks for persons preparing for mechanic certification with airframe or powerplant ratings, or both. It is intended that this handbook will provide basic information on principles, fundam€ntals, and technical procedures in the subject matter areas common to both the airframe and powerplant ratings. Emphasis in this volume is on theory and methods of application.
The handbook is designed to aid Students enrolled in a formal course_of instruc tion as well as the individual who is studying on his own. Since the knowledge requirements for the airframe and powerplant ratings closely parallel each other in some subject areas, the chapters which discuss fire protection systems and electrical systems contain some material which is also duplicated in the Airframe and Power plant Mechanics Powerplant Handbook, AC 65-12A, and the Airframe and Power plant Mechanics Airframe Handbook, AC 65-ISA.
This volume contains information on aircraft ·drawings, weight and balance, air craft materials and processesi physics, electricity, inspection, ground support, and tools. Knowledge gained from the study of this handbook is essential before pro ceeding in a course of study in either the airframe or powerplant handbooks.
Because there are so many diffrrent types of airframes and powerplants in use today, it is reasonable to expect that differences exist in the components and systems of each. To avoid undue repetition, the practice of using representative systems and units is carried out throughout the handbook. Subject matter treatment is from a generalize-cl point of view~ and should be supplemented by reference to manufacturers' manuals or other textbooks if more detail is desired. This handbook is not intended to repiace, substitute for, or supersede official regulations or the manufacturers' instructions.
Grateful acknowledgement is extended to the manufacturers of airframe and airframe components for their cooperation in making material available for inclusion.
Copyright material is used by special permission of the following organizations and may not be extracted or reproduced without permission of the copyright owner.
Monsanto Chemical Skvdrol ® Fluids Townsend Corporation Ch.erry Rivets J. 0. King, Inc.
Gravines. Inc.
Walter Kidde DuPont DeNemours National Fire Protection Association National Association of Fire Extinguisher Distributors Flight Safety Foundation American Petroleum Institute Exxon Parker Hannifin Acres Sleeves Acres Sleeves Fire Extinguishers Fire Extinguishers Fire Extinguishants Fire Extinguisher and Extinguishant Specifications Fire Extinguishers Refueling Data Aviation Fuels A\'iation Fuels Aircraft Fittings The advancements in aeronautical technology dictate that an instructional hand book must be under continuous review and brought up to date periodicaliy to be valid. Flight Standards requested comments. from the cntificatE'<l aviation mainte nance technician schools, on the three handbooks. As a result of this survey, the handbooks have beE'n updated to this extent: nE'w matPrial has been added in the areas which ·were indicated as being deficient, and some material has been real'ranged to improve the teachability of the handbooks.
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We would appreciate having errors brought to our attention, as well as receiving suggestions for improving the- usefulness of the handbooks. Comments and sugges tions will be retained in our files until such time as the next revision will be accom plished.
Address all correspondence relating to these handbooks to:
U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration F1ight Standards National Field Office P.O. Box 25082 Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73125 The companion handbooks to AC 65-9A are the Airframe and Powerplant Me chanics Powerplant Handbook, AC 65-12A, and the Airframe an-d Powerplant Me· chanics Airframe Handbook, AC 65-lSA.
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CONTENTS PREFACE- ______________________________________________________ _ iii CONTENTS ____________________________ . _________________________ _ V
CHAPTER L MATHEMATICS Introduction _______________ ~----------------------------------- 1 Whole Numhers __________________________ _ 1 Fractions ____________________________________________________ . __ 2 Mixed Numbers_ .. __________________________________ . --- _______ _ 4 Decimals ------------------- _______ -------------- _____________ _ 5 Ratio--------------------------------------------------------- 10 Proportion ____________________________________________________ _ 11 Positive and Negative Numbers _________________________________ _ 11 Powers and Roots ___________________________________ - _______ _ 12 Computing Area_____________________ _ _________________ _ 15 Computing the Volume of Solids ______________ _ 20 Graphs and Charts ___________ _ 23 _!\!Ieasurement Systems _________ ----------- ____ ----------- --- ----- 27 Functions of Numbers ------------------------------------------- 31 CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT DRAWINGS Prints ________________________________________________________ _ 35 Working Drawings ______________ ------------ _______ ----------- __ 35 Care and Use of Drawings. ____ -.- ____________________ .. _____ . ____ _ 36 Title Blocks ___________________________________________________ _ 36 Bill of Material_ _________ - ___ - ___ - ___ - - 37 Other Data---------------------------------------------------- 38 Methods of Illustrating Objects ____________________________ _ 39 Meaning of Lines __________________________ .. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 42 Reading Drawings. ____________________________________________ _ 45 Diagrams_________________________________________ _ ______ _ 46 Drawing Sketches _____________________________________________ _ 49 Drawing Symbols ______________________________________________ _ 50 Care of Drafting Instruments _______ ----------- ---------------- 50 Microfihn _____________________________________________________ _ 50 CHAPTER 3. AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE Purpose ______________________________________________________ _ 53 "".- .··• Need for Reweighing ___________________________________________ _ 53 Theory of Weight and Balance __________________________________ _ 53 Mathematical Proof_ ___________________________________________ _ 54 Weight and Balance Data ______________________________________ _ 54 Terminology __________________________________________________ _ 54 Aircraft Weighing Procedure ____________________________________ _ 59 Weight and Balance Extreme Conditions _________________________ _ 65 Installation of Ballast_ _________________________________________ _ 67 V '
,· Loading Graphs and C. G. Envelopes_____________________________ 69 Electronic Weighing Equipment__________________________________ 70 Helicopter Weight and Balance___________________________________ 70 CHAPTER 4. FUELS AND FUEL SYSTEMS General_______________________________________________________ 73 Characteristics and Properties of Aviation Gasoline_________________ 73 Turbine Engine Fuels___________________________________________ 77 Fuel System Contamination______________________________________ 78 Fuel System___________________________________________________ 81 Fuel System Components _________________________ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 82 Fuel System Indicators__________________________________________ 88 M ultiengine Fuel Systems_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 93 Fuel Jettison Systems ____ -------------------- ----------------- 94 Troubleshooting the Fuel System_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 94 CHAPTER 5. FLUID LINES AND FITTINGS General_ _ _ _ _ _. _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 99 Plumbing Lines _____________________________________ - ___ -- _ _ _ _ _ 99 Identification of :vfaterials ---------------------------------------- 99 Flexible Hose ____________ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ 100 Plumbing Connectors ______________ .. _____ .. ______________________ 103 Tube Forming Processes_________________________________________ 108 Repair of \fetal Tube Lines______________________________________ 113 Fabrication and Replacement of Flexible Hose ________________ .____ 114 Installation of Rigid Tubing_____________________________________ 115 Plumbing Assembly Precautions__________________________________ 117 Support Clamps----------------------------------------------- 118 CHAPTER 6. AIRCRAFT HARDWARE, MATERIALS, AND
PROCESSES Aircraft Hardware Threaded _Fasteners _______ _ Aircraft Bolts_ _ _ _ _ _ .. ____ _ 121 121 122 Specia I -Purpose Bolts _________________ - - - - - - - - - - - -_ - _ - - - - - - - - - - - 123 Aircraft Nuts __ . ________ . ____________ - ----- _ ---- ------- ----- -- 126 Aircraft w-as hers ___ . _ ... "· ______________________________ - __ - - ___ _ Installation of Nuts and Bolts _______________________________ - ___ _ Torque and Torque 'Wrenches ----------------------------------- Aireraft Screws_ Repair of Damaged Internal Threads ----------------------------- RPpair of Damaged Holes with Acres Fastners Sleeves --------------- Turnlock Fasteners_ Control Cables_ Push- Pull Tuhe Linkage _______________________________________ _ Pins __ _ Safety :Methods_ Rivets ____ _ Plastics _____ _ Rubber __ Shock Ah1-iorber ConL _________________________________________ _ Seals __ . __________________________________ . _____ _ Ga:-.kets __ Wipers_ vi 130 132 132 135 137 138 141 143 144 144 145 150 163 164 166 166 168 169
Sealing Compounds . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . 16 9
Corrosion Control171
F orrns of Corrosion172
Factors Affecting Corrosion173
Preventive Maintenance173
Inspection ........................................................................................................................................................................ 17 4
Corrosion-Prone Areas174
Corrosion Removal176
Corrosion of Ferrous Metals177
Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys177
Corrosion of Magnesium Alloys179
Treatment of Titanium and Titanium Alloys180
Protection of Dissimilar Metal Contacts180
Corrosion Limits .............................................................................................................................................................. 180 '.·:.
Processes and Materials Used in Corrosion Control181
Chemical Treatments183
Protective Paint Finishes ......................................................................................................... :185
Aircraft Cleaning185
Interior Cleaning186
Powerplant Cleaning188
Solvent Cleaners188
Emulsion Cleaners189
Soaps and Detergent Cleaners189
Mechanical Cleaning Materials190
Chemical Cleaners190
Structural Metals191
Metalworking Processes ........ ,193
Ferrous Aircraft Metals194
Nonferrous Aircraft Metals198
Substitution of Aircraft Metals204
Principles of Heat Treatment205
Heat-Treating Equipment205
Heat Treatment of Ferrous Metals208
Casehardening211
Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Metals212
Solution Heat Treatment213
Precipitation Heat Treating214
Annealing of Aluminum Alloys216
Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloy Rivets216
Heat Treatment of Magnesium A!loys216
Heat Treatment of Titanium217
Hardness Testing218
CHAPTER 7. PHYSICS
General221
Matter221
Fluids222
Temperature225
Pressure226
Kinetic Theory of Gases227
Atmosphere236
Bernoulli's Principle242
Machines243
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Work, Power, and Energy249
Motion of Bodies253
Heat256
Sound261
CHAPTER 8. BASIC ELECTRICITY
General267
Matter267
Static Electricity268
Electromotive Force271
Current Flow272
Resistance272
Basic Circuit Components and Symbols ........................................................................................................................... 2 7 4
Ohm's Law282
Series D.C. Circuits286
Parallel D.C. Circuits290
Series-Parallel D.C. Circuits292
Voltage Dividers .............................................................................................................................................................. 2 94
Rheostats and Potentiometers296
Magnetism298
Storage Batteries.. 306 Lead-Acid Batteries . .. 307
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries313
Circuit Protective and Control Devices315
Switches317
D.C. Measuring Instruments320
Multimeters325
Voltmeters327
Olunmeters329
Basic Circuit Analysis and Troubleshooting332
Alternating Current and Voltage338
lndnctance344
Capacitance346
Ohm's Law for A.C. Circuits352
Transformers358
Magnetic Amplifiers364
Vacnnm Tubes366
Transistors.. 369 Rectifiers ....................................... .
Filtering .......................... .
A. C. Measuring Instruments .............. .
Frequency Meters .......................................................... .
CHAPTER 9. AIRCRAFT GENERATORS AND MOTORS D.C. Generators ......................... .
Types of D. C. Generators ..
Regulation of Generator Voltage ..... .
Differential Relay Switch ...... .
Parallelling Generators ..................................... .
D. C. Generator Maintenance ............................ .
Voltage Regulator Operation ...... .
Alternators .................. .
Brushless Alternator ........ .
Combined A.C. and D.C. Electrical Systems ............ .
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Voltage Regulation of Alternators _______________________ ---- ____ _ 417 Alternator Constant.Speed Drive ________________________________ _ 423 Synchronizing Alternators ______________________________________ _ 430 Alternator Maintenance ________________________________________ _ 433 Inverters _____________________________________________________ _ 435 D.C. Motors ________________________________________ - --- - - ___ _ 438 Types of D.C. Motors ______ ··------- ____________________________ _ 445 A.C. Motors __________________________________________________ _ 451 Types of A.C. Motors ___________________________________ -.- _____ _ 452 Maintenance of A.C. Motors ___________________________________ _ 459 CHAPTER 10. INSPECTION FUNDAMENTALS Genera] ______________________________________________________ _ 461 Required Inspections _______________________________________ .- ___ _ 461 Inspec6on Techniques __________________________________________ _ 461 Checklist ____ ---------- _____ ----- ---- ------ --------- -------- __ _ 462 Aircraft Logs _____________ . ________________________ . ___________ _ 463 Special Inspections ________________________________________ -··- __ _ 463 Publications ___________________________________ - ___ - - - - - - - - - - - - 464 Magnetic Partide Inspection _____________________ . ______________ _ 469 Magnetizing Equipment_ ________________ .. ___________ _ 474 Demagnetization ____________________________________ . _________ _ 477 Dye-Penetrant Inspection ______________________________________ _ 477 RadiographY--------------------------------------------------- 479 Ultrasonic Testing _____________________________________________ _ 481 Eddy Current Testing _________ --------- _____ :... --------- _____ ---- _ 485 Visual Inspection ______________________________________________ _ 486 ; '."' CHAPTER 11. GROUND HANDLING, SAFETY, AND
SUPPORT EQUIPMENT Introduction __________________________________________________ _ 489 General _______________________ =- ______________________________ _ 489 Starting Engines _ --------------- ______ ---------- _____ ---------- 489 Turboprop Engines _____ . ____________________ . _________________ _ 491 Turbojet Engines __ .. ___________________________________________ _ 492 Electrical Power _______________________________________________ _ 495 Hydraulic Power _______________________________________________ _ 495 Air Conditioning and Heating Units______ _ _____________________ _ 496 Ground Support Air Start Units _________________________________ _ 496 Preoiling Equipment_ __ 497 Aircraft Fueling___ _ ___ _ 497 Fire---------------------------------------------------------- 500 Recommended i\farkings to Indicate Extinguisher Suitability ---------- 503 Aircraft Fire Extinguishers ______ ------- ___ ----- _ -------------- __ 503 Servicing Aircraft with OiL ______________________________________ _ 505 l\tlain tenance Safety ____________________________________________ _ 507 Servicing Aircraft Oxygen Systems _______________________________ _ 508 Aircraft Tiedown ______________________________________________ _ 508 Securing Light Aircraft_ ________________________________________ _ 511 Securing Heavy Aircraft_ _______________________________________ _ 512 Aircraft Tied own for Storm Conditions ___________________________ _ 512 Movement of Aircraft_ ________________________ ~ _________ _ 517 IX
Jacking Aircraft- ________________________________ --· ___ ----_ - __ - 523 Cold Weather Suggestions_______________________________________ 525 CHAPTER 12. HANDTOOLS AND MEASURING DEVICES Introduction ________ ------------------------------------------ 529 General-Purpose Tools. ______________________________________ --- 529 Metal Cutting Tools _____________ . _____________________ -- __ -- -- - 534 Layout and Measuring Tools_____________________________________ 542 Taps and Dies ________________________ .________________________ 547
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INTRODUCTION The use of mathematics is so woven into every area of everyday life that seldom if ever does one fully realize how very helpless we would be in the performance of most of our daily work without the knowledge of even the simplest form of mathe matics. Many persons have difficulty with rela tively simple computations involving only ele mentary mathematics. Performing mathematical computations with success requires an under standing of the correct procedures and continued practice in the use of mathematical manipulations.
A person entering the aviation field will be required to perform with accuracy. The aviation mechanic is often involved in tasks that require mathematical computations of some sort. Toler ances in aircraft and engine components are often critical, making it necessary to measure within a thousandth or ten-thousandth of an inch. Because of the close tolerances to which he must adhere, it is important that the aviation mechanic be able to make accurate measurements and mathe matical calculations.
Mathematics may he thought of as a kit of tools, each mathematical operation being com pared to the use of one of the tools in the solving of a problem. The basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication 1 and division are the tools available to aid us in solving a particular problem.
WHOLE NUMBERS Addition of Whole Numbers The process of finding the combined amount of two or more numbers is called addition. The answer is called the sum.
When adding several whole numbers, such as 4567, 832, 93122, and 65, place them under each other with their digits in columns so that the last, or right hand, digits are in the same column.
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MA TH EMA TICS When adding decimals such as 45.67, 8.32,
9.8122, and .65, place them under each other so that the decimal points are in a straight ffup-and down '' line.
To check addition, either add the figures again in the same order, or add them in reverse order.
Subtraction of Whole Numbers Subtraction is the process of finding the differ ence between two numbers by taking the smaller from the larger of the two numbers. The number which is subtracted is caHed the subtrahend, the other number the minuend~ and their difference is called the remainder. To find the remainder, write the subtrahend under the minuend, as in addition.
Beginning at the right, subtract each figure in the subtrahend from the figure above it and write the individual remainder below in the same column.
When the process is completed, the number below the subtrahend is the remainder.
To check subtraction, add the remainder and the subtrahend together. The sum of the two should equal the minuend.
Multiplication of Whole Numbers The process of finding the quantity obtained by repeating a given number a specified number of times is called multiplication. More simply stated, the process of multiplication is, in effect, a case of repeated addition in which all the num bers being added are identical. Thus, the sum of 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 = 24 can be expressed by multi plication as 6 X 4 = 24. The numbers 6 and 4 are known as the factors of the multiplication, and 24 as the product.
In multiplication, the product is formed by multiplying the factors. When one of the factors is a single-digit integer ( whole number), the product is formed by multiplying the single-di~it integer with each digit of the other factor from right to left, carrying when necessary.
- _;, When both facton are multiple,digit integers, the product is formed by multiplying each digit in the multiplying factor with the other factor.
Exercise. care, when writing down the partial products formed, to make certain that the extreme right digit lines up under the multiplying digit.
It is then a matter of simple addition to find the final product.
EXAMPLE Determine the cost of 18 spark plugs that cost $3.25 each.
3.25 Xl8 2600 325
58.50 When multiplying a series of numbers together~ the final product will he the same regardless of the order in which the numbers are arranged.
EXAMPLE MULTIPLY: (7) (3) (5) (2) = 210 7 21 105 X3 XS X2 or 21 105 210 Division of Whole Numbers 7 3 35 XS X2 X6 35 6 210 The process of finding how many times one number is contained in a second number is called division. The first number is called the divisor, the second the dividend, and the result is the quotient.
Of the four basic operations with integers, di vision is the only one that involves trial and error in its solution. It is necessary to guess at the proper quotient digits, and though experience will tend to lessen the number of trials, everyone will guess incorrectly at some time or another.
Placing the decimal point correctly in the quo tient quite often presents a problem. When di viding a decimal by a decimal, an important step is to first remove the decimal from the divisor.
This is accomplished by shifting the decimal point to the right the number of places needed to eliminate it. Next, move the decimal point to the right as many places in the dividend as was necessary to move it in the divisor, and then proceed as in ordinary division.
FRACTIONS A fraction is an indicated division that ex presses one or more of the equal parts into which a unit is divided. For example, the fraction f indi cates that the whole has been divided into 3 equal parts and that 2 of these parts are being used or considered. The number above the line is the numerator; and the number below the line is the denominator.
If the numerator of a fraction is equal to or larger than the denominator, the fraction is known as an improper fraction. In the fraction \~, if the indicated division is performed, the improper fraction is changed to a mixed number, which is a whole number and a fraction:
15 8 7 1-8 A complex fraction is one that contains one or more fractions or mixed numbers in either the numerator or denominator. The following frac tions are examples:
1 5 3 2 8 4 3j 2 ; 2; 5; 2 -3 8 3 A decimal fraction is obtained by dividing the numerator of a fraction by the denominator and showing the quotient as a decimal. The fraction i equals 5 + 8 = .625.
A fraction does not change its value if both numerator and denominator are multiplied or di vided by the same number.
1 3 3 1 -x-=-=- 4 3 12 4 The same fundamental operations performed with whole numbers can also be performed with fractions. These are addition, subtraction, multi plication, and division.
Addition and Subtraction of Common Fractions In order to add or subtract fractions, all the denominators must be alike. In working with fractions, as in whole numbers, the rule of likeness applies. That is, only like fractions may he added or subtracted.
When adding or subtracting fractions that have like denominators, it is only necessary to add or