AC65-9A Airframe & Powerplant
MECHANICS
GENERAL HANDBOOK
CONSOLIDATED
REPRINT (includes CHG 1, dated 3/31/99) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
AIRFRAME AND POWERPLANT
MECHANICS
GENERAL HANDBOOK U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service First Edition 1970 First Revision 1976 For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328
PREFACE This handbook was developed and first printed in 1970 as one of a series of three handbooks for persons preparing for mechanic certification with airframe or powerplant ratings, or both. It is intended that this handbook will provide basic information on principles, fundamentals, and technical procedures in the subject matter areas common to both the airframe and powerplant ratings. Emphasis in this volume is on theory and methods of application.
The handbook is designed to aid students enrolled in a formal course of instruction as well as the individual who is studying on his own. Since the knowledge requirements for the airframe and powerplant ratings closely parallel each other in some subject areas, the chapters which discuss fire protection systems and electrical systems contain some material which is also duplicated in the Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Powerplant Handbook, AC 65-12A, and the Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Airframe Handbook, AC 65-15A.
This volume contains information on aircraft drawings, weight and balance, aircraft materials and processes, physics, electricity, inspection, ground support, and Knowledge gained from the study of this handbook is essential before proceeding in a course of study in either the airframe or powerplant handbooks.
Because there are so many different types of airframes and powerplants in use today, it is reasonable to expect that differences exist in the components and systems of each. To avoid undue repetition, the practice of using representative systems and units is carried out throughout the handbook. Subject matter treatment is from a generalized point of view, and should be supplemented by reference to manufacturers' manuals or other textbooks if more detail is desired. This handbook is not intended to replace, substitute for, or supersede official regulations or the manufacturers' instructions.
Grateful acknowledgement is extended to the manufacturers of airframe and airframe components for their cooperation in making material available for inclusion.
Copyright material is used by special permission of the following organizations and may not be extracted or reproduced without permission of the copyright owner.
Monsanto Chemical Skydrol ® Fluids Townsend Corporation Cherry Rivets J. O. King, Ine. Acres Sleeves Gravines, Inc. Fire Extinguishers Walter Kidde Fire Extinguishers DuPont DeNemours Fire Extinguishants National Fire Protection Fire Extinguisher and Association Extinguishant Specifications National Association of Fire Extinguisher Distributors 'ire Extinguisher‹ Flight Safety Foundation Refueling Data American Petroleum Institute Aviation Fuels Exxon Aviation Fuels Parker Hannifin Aircraft Fittings The advancements in aeronautical technology dictate that an instructional handbook must be under continuous review and brought up to date periodically to be valid. Flight Standards requested comments, from the certificated aviation maintenance technician schools, on the three handbooks. As a result of this survey, the handbooks have been updated to this extent: new material has been added in the areas which were indicated as being deficient, and some material has been rearranged to improve the teachability of the handbooks.
We would appreciate having errors brought to our attention, as well as receiving suggestions for improving the usefulness of the handbooks. Comments and suggestions will be retained in our files until such time as the next revision will be accomplished.
Address all correspondence relating to these handbooks to:
U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Flight Standards National Field Office P.O. Box 25082 Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73125 The companion handbooks to AC 65-9A are the Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Powerplant Handbook, AC 65-12A, and the Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Airframe Handbook, AC 65-15A.
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CONTENTS PREFACE_ İii CONTENTS._ CHAPTER 1. MATHEMATICS Introduction _ Whole Numbers- Fractions.
Mixed Numbers Decimals Ratio _ Proportion Positive and Negative Numbers Powers and Roots Computing Area Computing the Volume of Solids Graphs and Charts Measurement Systems Functions of Numbers CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT DRAWINGS Prints Working Drawings Care and Use of Drawings- Title Blocks Bill of Material Other Data Methods of Illustrating Objects.
Meaning of Lines- Reading Drawings.
Diagrams- Drawing Sketches - Drawing Symbols- Care of Drafting Instruments- Microfilm CHAPTER 3. AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE Purpose - Need for Reweighing- Theory of Weight and Balance..
Mathematical Proof.
Weight and Balance Data- Terminology _ Aircraft Weighing Procedure.
Weight and Balance Extreme Conditions- Installation of Ballast.
Loading Graphs and C. G. Envelopes- Electronic Weighing Equipment.
Helicopter Weight and Balance_ CHAPTER 4. FUELS AND FUEL SYSTEMS General Characteristics and Properties of Aviation Gasoline- Turbine Engine Fuels..
Fuel System Contamination Fuel System._.
Fuel System Components- Fuel System Indicators Multiengine Fuel Systems Fuel Jettison Systems.
Troubleshooting the Fuel System.. 91 CHAPTER 5. FLUID LINES AND FITTINGS General_ _ 99 Plumbing Lines. - 99 Identification of Materials - 99 Flexible Hose . 100 Plumbing Connectors. 103 Tube Forming Processes 108 Repair of Metal Tube Lines 113 Fabrication and Replacement of Flexible Hose-- 114 Installation of Rigid Tubing- 115 Plumbing Assembly Precautions 117 Support Clamps . .- 118 CHAPTER 6. AIRCRAFT HARDWARE, MATERIALS, AND
PROCESSES Aircraft Hardware. 121 Threaded Fasteners- 121 Aircraft Bolts- 122 Special-Purpose Bolts_. 123 Aircraft Nuts. - 126 Aircraft Washers- 130 Installation of Nuts and Bolts- 132 Torque and Torque Wrenches -- 132 Aircraft Screws. 135 Repair of Damaged Internal Threads 137 Repair of Damaged Holes with Acres Fastners Sleeves 138 Turnlock Fasteners- 141 Control Cables - 143 Push-Pull Tube Linkage - 144 Pins - - 144 Safety Methods. - 145 Rivets_ 150 Plastics 163 Rubber. 164 Shock Absorber Cord.. 166 Seals 166 Gaskets_ 168 Wipers 169 vi
3/3:1/99 AC 65-9A CHG 1 Sealing Compounds 169 Corrosion Control 171 Forms of Corrosion. 172 Factors Affecting Corrosion Preventive Maintenance Inspection 174 Corrosion-Prone Areas. 174 Corrosion Removal Corrosion of Ferrous Metals.
Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys.
Corrosion of Magnesium Alloys 179 Treatment of Titanium and Titanium Alloys.. 180 Protection of Dissimilar Metal Contacts 180 Corrosion Limits.. 180 Processes and Materials Used in Corrosion Control.
Chemical Treatments Protective Paint Finishes.
Aircraft Cleaning Interior Cleaning Powerplant Cleaning..
Solvent Cleaners.
Emulsion Cleaners Soaps and Detergent Cleaners.
Mechanical Cleaning Materials..
Chemical Cleaners Structural Metals.
Metalworking Processes. 193 Ferrous Aircraft Metals.. 194 Nonferrous Aircraft Metals. 198 Substitution of Aircraft Metals.
Principles of Heat Treatment.
Heat-Treating Equipment. 205 Heat Treatment of Ferrous Metals. 208 Casehardening.
Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Metals.
Solution Heat Treatment 213 Precipitation Heat Treating.. 214 Annealing of Aluminum Alloys.. 216 Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloy Rivets.. 216 Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloys.. 216 Heat Treatment of Titanium. 217 Hardness Testing ... 218 CHAPTER 7. PHYSICS General. 221 Matter. 221 Fluids 222 Temperature 225 Pressure.. 226 Kinetic Theory of Gases.. 227 Atmosphere 236 Bernoulli's Principle.. 242 Machines. 243 vii
Work, Power, and Energy. 249 Motion of Bodies 253 Heat.. 256 Sound 261 CHAPTER 8. BASIC ELECTRICITY General.. 267 Matter. 267 Static Electricity .. . 268 Electromotive Force . 271 Current Flow . 272 Resistance . 272 Basic Circuit Components and Symbols.. 274 Ohm's Law. 282 Series D.C. Circuits 286 Parallel D.C. Circuits. 290 Series-Parallel D.C. Circuits. 292 Voltage Dividers 294 Rheostats and Potentiometers 296 Magnetism. 298 Storage Batteries 306 Lead-Acid Batteries. 307 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries 313 Circuit Protective and Control Devices. 315 Switches 317 D.C. Measuring Instruments.. 320 Multimeters 325 Voltmeters 327 Ohmmeters. 329 Basic Circuit Analysis and Troubleshooting . 332 Alternating Current and Voltage. . 338 Inductance 344 Capacitance 346 Ohm's Law for A.C. Circuits 352 Transformers 358 Magnetic Amplifiers. 364 Vacuum Tubes 366 Transistors 369 Rectifiers 373 Filtering. 378 A.C. Measuring Instruments.. 380 Frequency Meters. 385 CHAPTER 9. AIRCRAFT GENERATORS AND MOTORS D.C. Generators . 387 Types of D.C. Generators . 394 Regulation of Generator Voltage.. 398 Differential Relay Switch . 402 Parallelling Generators _ 40 )З D.C. Generator Maintenance , 404 Voltage Regulator Operation . 407 Alternators .411 Brushless Alternator 414 Combined A.C. and D.C. Electrical Systems. 415 viii
Voltage Regulation of Alternators. 417 Alternator Constant-Speed Drive 423 Synchronizing Alternators. 430 Alternator Maintenance. 433 Inverters. 435 D.C. Motors. 438 Types of D.C. Motors 445 A.C. Motors. 451 Types of A.C. Motors. 452 459 ILS 461 461 461 462 463 463 464 469 474 477 477 479 481 485 486
LING, AN 489 General_ 489 489 491 492 495 495 Units _ 496 nits 496 497 497 Fire 500 dicate Extinguisher Suitab ility 503 503 505 507 stems 508 508 511 512 Con ditions. 512 Movement of Aircraft- 517 ix
Jacking Aircraft. 523 Cold Weather Suggestions- 525 CHAPTER 12. HANDTOOLS AND MEASURING DEVICES Introduction. 529 General-Purpose Tools_ 529 Metal Cutting Tools. 534 Layout and Measuring Tools. 542 Taps and Dies - 547
INTRODUCTION The use of mathematics is so woven into every area of everyday life that seldom if ever does one fully realize how very helpless we would be in the performance of most of our daily work without the knowledge of even the simplest form of mathematics. Many persons have difficulty with relatively simple computations involving only elementary mathematics. Performing mathematical computations with success requires an understanding of the correct procedures and continued practice in the use of mathematical manipulations.
A person entering the aviation field will be required to perform with accuracy. The aviation mechanic is often involved in tasks that require mathematical computations of some sort. Tolerances in aircraft and engine components are often critical, making it necessary to measure within a thousandth or ten-thousandth of an inch. Because of the close tolerances to which he must adhere, it is important that the aviation mechanic be able to make accurate measurements and mathematical calculations.
Mathematics may be thought of as a kit of tools, each mathematical operation being compared to the use of one of the tools in the solving of a problem. The basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are the tools available to aid us in solving a particular problem.
WHOLE NUMBERS Addition of Whole Numbers The process of finding the combined amount of two or more numbers is called addition. The answer is called the sum.
When adding several whole numbers, such as 4567, 832, 93122, and 65, place them under each other with their digits in columns so that the last, or right hand, digits are in the same column.
CHAPTER 1
MATHEMATICS When adding decimals such as 45.67, 8.32,
9.8122, and .65, place them under each other so that the decimal points are in a straight "up-anddown" line.
To check addition, either add the figures again in the same order, or add them in reverse order.
Subtraction of Whole Numbers Subtraction is the process of finding the difference between two numbers by taking the smaller from the larger of the two numbers. The number which is subtracted is called the subtrahend, the other number the minuend, and their difference is called the remainder. To find the remainder, write the subtrahend under the minuend, as in addition.
Beginning at the right, subtract each figure in the subtrahend from the figure above it and write the individual remainder below in the same column.
When the process is completed, the number below the subtrahend is the remainder.
To check subtraction, add the remainder and the subtrahend together. The sum of the two should equal the minuend.
Multiplication of Whole Numbers The process of finding the quantity obtained by repeating a given number a specified number of times is called multiplication. More simply stated, the process of multiplication is, in effect, a case of repeated addition in which all the numbers being added are identical. Thus, the sum of 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 = 24 can be expressed by multiplication as 6 X 4 = 24. The numbers 6 and 4 are known as the factors of the multiplication, and 24 as the product.
In multiplication, the product is formed by multiplying the factors. When one of the tactors single-digit integer (whole number), the product is formed by multiplying the single-digit integer with each digit of the other factor from right to left, carrying when necessary.
When both factors are multiple-digit integers, the product is formed by multiplying each digit in the multiplying factor with the other factor.
Exercise. care, when writing down the partial products formed, to make certain that the extreme right digit lines up under the multiplying digit.
It is then a matter of simple addition to find the finai product.
EXAMPLE Determine the cost of 18 spark plugs that cost $3.25 each.
3.25 X18 2600 325
58.50 When multiplying a series of numbers together, the final product will be the same regardless of the order in which the numbers are arranged.
EXAMPLE MULTIPLY: (7) (3) (5) (2) = 210 7 21 105 35 X3 X5 X2 or X5 X2 X6 21 105 210 35 6 210 Division of Whole Numbers The process of finding how many times one number is contained in a second number is called division. The first number is called the divisor, the second the dividend, and the result is the quotient.
Of the four basic operations with integers, division is the only one that involves trial and error in its solution. It is necessary to guess at the proper quotient digits, and though experience will tend to lessen the number of trials, everyone will guess incorrectly at some time or another.
Placing the decimal point correctly in the quotient quite often presents a problem. When dividing a decimal by a decimal, an important step is to first remove the decimal from the divisor.
This is accomplished by shifting the decimal point to the right the number of places needed to eliminate it. Next, move the decimal point to the right as many places in the dividend as was necessary to move it in the divisor, and then proceed as in ordinary division.
FRACTIONS A fraction is an indicated division that expresses one or more of the equal parts into which a unit is divided. For example, the fraction § indicates that the whole has been divided into 3 equal parts and that 2 of these parts are being used or considered. The number above the line is the numerator; and the number below the line is the denominator.
If the numerator of a fraction is equal to or larger than the denominator, the fraction is known as an improper fraction. In the fraction 4, if the indicated division is performed, the improper fraction is changed to a mixed number, which is a whole number and a fraction:
15 A complex fraction is one that contains one or more fractions or mixed numbers in either the numerator or denominator. The following fractions are examples:
A decimal fraction is obtained by dividing the numerator of a fraction by the denominator and showing the quotient as a decimal. The fraction 8 equals 5 ÷ 8 = .625.
A fraction does not change its value if both numerator and denominator are multiplied or divided by the same number.
·×3-12-1 The same fundamental operations performed with whole numbers can also be performed with fractions. These are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Addition and Subtraction of Common Fractions In order to add or subtract fractions, all the denominators must be alike. In working with fractions, as in whole numbers, the rule of likeness applies. That is, only like fractions may be added or subtracted.
When adding or subtracting fractions that have like denominators, it is only necessary to add or N