AC 29-2C, Chg 7 2/4/2016 − Equipment Essential to Safe Operation: Equipment installed in order to comply with the applicable certification requirements of part 29 or operational requirements of parts 91 and 135.
− Failure: An occurrence that affects the operation of a component, part, or element such that it can no longer function as intended. This includes both loss of function and malfunction. Errors may cause failures, but they are not considered failures.
− Failure Condition: A condition having a direct or consequential effect on the aircraft, its occupants, or both, and that is caused or contributed to by one or more failures or errors. Failure Conditions may be classified according to their severity. See section 29.1309 of this AC for more information on failure conditions.
− Field-of-View: Display field of view: The angular extent of the display viewable with either pilot’s eye when seated at the pilot’s station. Pilot’s field of view:
See figures AC 29 MG 19-1 and AC 29 MG 19-2 for more information on the field-of view.
− Function: The lowest defined level of a specific action of a system, equipment, or flight crew performance aboard the aircraft that, by itself, provides a complete recognizable operational capability (for example, an aircraft heading is a function). One or more systems may contain a specific function or one system may contain multiple functions.
− Functional Hazard Assessment: A systematic, comprehensive examination of aircraft and system functions to identify potential Failure Conditions that will have an impact on the aircraft, the flight crew, or the occupants.
− Fix: A generic name for a geographical position also referred to as a fix, waypoint, intersection, reporting point, etc.
− Flight Plan: A sequence of fixes interconnected by the desired path.
Flight plans may range from the simplest that include only the aircraft’s present position, the active waypoint, and the desired path in between, to more complicated plans that include departure and destination airports with multiple intermediate fixes.
− Hardware: An object that has physical being. Generally refers to circuit cards, power supplies, etc.
− Hazard: Any condition that compromises the overall safety of the aircraft or adversely effects the ability of the flight crew to cope with adverse operating conditions.
− Independent: A component, part, element, or system that does not rely on another component, part, element, or system for accomplishing its function. This design Page MG 19 -10
concept ensures that the failure of one item does not cause a failure of another item.
For redundancy, each means of accomplishing the same function need not necessarily be identical.
− Indicator: A means for displaying information of a parameter. One display could depict more than one indicator. For example, a primary flight display may have indicators for attitude, altitude, airspeed, heading, and navigation.
− Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA): Both AC 20-170 and RTCA Document DO-297 provide the following definition of an IMA system:
“Shared set of flexible, reusable, and interoperable hardware and software resources that, when integrated, form a platform that provides services.
These services are designed and verified to a defined set of safety and performance requirements, to host applications performing aircraft functions.”
− Instrument: A device that is physically contained in one unit, or a device composed of two or more physically separate units or components connected together.
(One example is a remote indicating gyroscopic direction indicator that includes a magnetic sensing element, a gyroscopic unit, an amplifier, and an indicator connected together).
− Map Orientation: The relationship between the directions on a map to the compass depiction. Thus, using a North- up depiction, the North side of the map would be toward the top of the display and the south side of the map would be at the bottom.
Using a track-up depiction, the map would be oriented so that the aircraft’s track would be vertical on the map and pointing straight up toward the top of the display.
− Map Range: The geographic extent of the map region (for example, the distance covered by the map representation in either the vertical or the horizontal direction).
− Multifunction Flight Display (MFD): Any physical display unit, other than the PFD, with a reconfigurable layout that presents a variety of information.
− Navigation: The process of planning, recording, and controlling the movement of an aircraft from one place to another.
− Navigation Display: A suite of instruments that shows navigation data to the pilot.
− Navigation Information: Information that aids the flightcrew in determining the aircraft’s location in a given environment (for example, with respect to flight plans, VORs, NDBs, features on the airport surface including taxiway, signage, etc).
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AC 29-2C, Chg 7 2/4/2016 − Primary Display: As defined in § 23.1311(c) when used for instruments, it is “the display of a parameter that is located in the instrument panel such that the pilot looks at it first when wanting to view that parameter.”
− Primary Flight Display (PFD: A single physical unit that always provides the primary display of all of the following: altitude, airspeed, aircraft heading (direction), and attitude located directly in front of the pilot in a fixed layout in accordance with § 29.1321. It may include primary navigation information in a navigation section of the same display such as an HSI, navigation source and waypoint data, wind vector, and other basic navigation data. It may also provide other information pertinent to guidance and fundamental control of flight of the aircraft, such as engagement of flight guidance mode, flight director cueing, or other information.
− Primary Flight Information (PFI): Functions or parameters, such as airspeed, altitude, attitude, and heading (direction), required by the airworthiness and operational regulations.
− Primary Function: An installed feature that provides the most pertinent controls or information instantly and directly to the pilot.
− Primary Navigation Display: Display containing the most critical navigation information, such as on an HSI or CDI. It has the capability of displaying vertical and lateral deviation and may have the digital distance indication to/from the selected fix.
− Redundancy: The presence of more than one independent means for accomplishing a given function.
− Reversionary Display: A secondary means to provide information initially presented on the PFD or MFD by the transfer of information to an alternate display, usually as the result of a failure of a primary display.
− Reverse Video (Inverse Video): Visual alert or status indication presented with the inverse of the normally displayed alert. For example, for a visual alert normally displayed with yellow letters on black background, the “reverse video” presentation would be a yellow background with black letters.
− Scale: The relative proportion of the linear dimensions of objects on a display to the dimensions of the corresponding objects and distances being represented (for example, 1 inch = 100 nautical miles).
− Secondary Display: A means to provide display of information on a display other than the Primary Display.
− Standby Instrument: A dedicated instrument that is always available, which presents primary flight information.
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− Supplemental: Any additional function beyond t hose operationally required.
− System: A combination of components, parts, and elements that ar e interconnected to perform one or more functions.
− Synthetic Vision System: A system used to create a synthetic image representing the environment external to the aircraft. An image display based entirely or partially on an internal database carried on the aircraft.
− Time-Critical Warning: The highest level of warning for conditions that require immediate flight crew response, to maintain the immediate safe operation of the aircraft. Examples of Time- Critical warnings are:
• Overspeed Warnings.
• Low Energy Warnings.
• Helicopter Terrain Awareness Warnings (HTAWS).
• TCAS Resolution Advisory.
• Predictive and Reactive Windshear Warnings.
Track: The flight path of an aircraft over the surface of the earth, also known as true course.
Note: For additional definitions related to safety assessments, refer to AC 29-2, section
29.1309 and AC 29-2 MG 21 (FHA) of this AC.
c. Display Description.
(1) General.
(i) EDS displays and installations range from individual representations of ADI and HSI to fully integrated display suites combining primary flight and navigation information on a single display, a PFD and powerplant or system information on another display, or EICAS display. The flexibility allowed by the technology provides display designers wide latitude in how and where to display information to the pilot. Other displays or MFD of supplementary information may also be included in the installation.
(ii) The display layout and format of information may range from digitally rendered representations of conventional “round-dial” electromechanical gauges and instruments to tape displays to hybrid “round-dial” representations. Regardless of the format, the information displayed must be easily accessible and understandable by the pilot.
(iii) Retrofitting EDSs into existing “round-dial” or analog cockpits can create challenges due to interfaces with previously installed avionics and autopilot systems.
There should be an evaluation of these installations to ensure the pilot-system interface Page MG 19 - 13
AC 29-2C, Chg 7 2/4/2016 does not increase or significantly change the focus of pilot workload in order to manage and operate the system.
(iv) EDSs have the capability to combine the display of multiple flight, navigation, and powerplant parameters on to a single display, resulting in the loss of independence provided by individual gauges or instruments. As a result, considerations regarding loss of required information must account for a possible single failure leading to the loss of all flight, navigation, or powerplant information on a display.
(2) Basic flight and navigation information.
(i) 14 CFR 29.1303 and Appendix B to part 29 define required flight and navigation instruments.
(ii) Flight Instruments: There are different instrument requirements for VFR and IFR rotorcraft (see Appendix B to part 29, VIII). Consult operational regulations
(e.g., parts 91 and 135) for any additional flight instrument requirements. Flight instruments that are not required by § 29.1303 but are installed to satisfy either an operational requirement or to enhance safe operation of the rotorcraft should be located as close as possible to the pilots’ center line of vision. For example, radar altimeters should be installed where pilots can easily incorporate the gauge into their airspeed and altitude scan. Placing a radar altimeter or other flight instruments at the maximum extent of the pilots’ secondary field of view makes the instrument difficult to incorporate into an efficient scan and increases pilots’ workload.
(iii) Navigation information.
(A) The display of navigation information can be either on the PFD or on an EHSI Supplemental navigation information, such as moving maps, can be displayed on MFDs. . However, the EHSI or PFD should provide the pilot with course and heading adherence, coupled with the information required for the pilot to attain and maintain awareness of the rotorcraft’s position relative to navigation waypoints and action points.
(B) Navigation equipment requirements are also given in operational rules (For example, §§ 91.205 , 135.143, and 121 Subpart K). Display requirements for navigation information depend on which navigation system is installed in the rotorcraft.
Electronic display installations may affect the instruments and equipment required for flights under part 91 and part 135. These instruments and equipment include gyroscopic bank and pitch, gyroscopic direction, gyroscopic rate-of-turn, slip-skid instruments, and other required communication and navigational equipment.
(iv) Arrangement and visibility of primary flight and navigation information.
Place the primary flight and navigation information in the pilot’s primary field of view.
Figure AC 29 MG 19-1 illustrates the primary field of view. Due to rotorcraft instrument panel design, the display of some information may be located below -15° and will need Page MG 19 -14
LT 0 RT Horizontal Vertical 2/4/2016 AC 29-2C, Chg 7 flight evaluation to confirm that pilots can see the information easily without extensive eye movements.
Figure AC 29 MG 19-1 Primary Field of View
(3) Powerplant.
(i) 14 CFR 29.1305 defines the powerplant and associated instruments information that should be continuously displayed.
(ii) Powerplant indicators and information necessary to set and monitor power should display in the pilot’s primary field of view (Figure AC 29 MG 19-1).
(iii) However, the required powerplant information and indications that show engine health and ability to produce power (e.g., oil temperature and pressure), can be displayed in the pilot’s secondary field of view, depicted in Figure AC 29 MG 19-2.
Position this information within the secondary field of view where pilots can easily see it during their routine scans. A cross-cockpit location may not be acceptable depending on cockpit and instrument panel width.
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LT Horizontal Vertical 30° \ Horiz C/L VJ 0 30° 15 NOM RT ON AC 29-2C, Chg 7 2/4/2016 Figure AC 29 MG 19-2 Secondary Field of View
(4) System.
(i) Electrical system information required by § 29.1351 and other system information, like integrated caution and warning messaging that may be included in an EICAS display, may also be displayed in the secondary field of view providing there is a master caution and/or warning light in the pilots’ primary field of view.
(ii) EDSs provide the ability to present system information on separate pages of a display. System architecture should not allow deselecting of the PFD, thereby not allowing access to system pages on MFDs.
(iii) The EDS design should inhibit access to configuration and maintenance pages in flight. However, pilots should have access to all information they need to perform their normal and any non-normal procedures.
(iv) The EDS design and installation should inhibit any pilot or manually initiated built-in-test of the EDS in-flight.
d. Display of Information.
(1) Format.
(i) See SAE ARP 4102-7 for examples of display formats. If new or novel formats are developed, coordinate with the certificating authority early in the certification project. Issue papers and, possibly, equivalent level of safety findings may be required.
(ii) Information format should allow the pilot quick access to the information presented without confusion or concentration. The format of the information is influenced by the type of information the display should relay to the pilot.
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(A) There needs to be graphical display of parameters for information containing rate or that can be dynamic in nature. Additionally, graphical display of parameters provides both discrete and spatial information to the pilot. It shows the pilot where the parameter is relative to limits as well as the specific value. Additionally, graphical displays allow the pilot to see changes spatially, as opposed to relying on remembering a numerical value and comparing it to the present numerical value.
(B) Numerical display of information is useful for static information that does not change or for pilot-selected discrete parameters. Additionally, if the parameter does not need to convey information regarding rates of change or position relative to a limit, then it may be acceptable to display it numerically.
(iii) Failure indications of loss of information should be clear, unambiguous, and not misleading. For example, it has been effective to use a red “X” with failure indication or the graying out of a failed parameter with failure indication. Removal of the indication upon failure without other symbology can cause confusion. Regardless of the method used to indicate a failed parameter, it should be intuitively obvious that the information is neither available nor misleads the pilot.
(iv) The format should inform the pilot with indications of flight guidance, attitude, airspeed, and altimeter information sources. For systems with redundant sources, where the system monitors and compares data between the systems, indications should alert the pilot of a mismatch and an indication to the use of whether the data sources are “offside” or “onside.” Switch position alone should not be used to indicate selection of the system.
(2) Colors.
(i) Develop the color philosophy early and apply it consistently throughout the instrument displays. SAE ARP 4102-7 contains information regarding color schemes.
(ii) Color should not be the sole method of coding to account for pilot color vision deficiencies. Use of redundant coding such as shape, outline, flashing, reverse video, or auditory is encouraged. However, flashing use should be limited. If applied, the use of flash coding should be consistent. For example, flashing should not be a caution for one parameter and a warning for another.
(iii) Colors used to alert pilots must follow the requirements in § 29.1322.
Also, consider AC 25.1322-1 regarding color use guidance. However, coordinate with the applicable certificating authority prior to adopting AC 25.1322-1 guidance.
(A) The color red must be reserved for alerting functions requiring immediate pilot awareness and action. Red is required to be used when marking limits on instruments and gauges. See section 29.1543 and subsequent sections of this AC for further guidance on the use of colors. Additionally, red may not be used to alert the pilot that a system is functioning normally in an emergency situation.
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AC 29-2C, Chg 7 2/4/2016
(1) Red should not be used as an outline for instruments or gauges.
Nor should red be used to define areas or “windows” on displays.
(2) Graphical displays of powerplant parameters should not present red bands or arcs. The marking of limits must comply with § 29.1547.
(B) The color scheme on moving map displays, navigation displays, and terrain displays should be the same. This is important to decrease pilot confusion and the possibility of providing misleading information.
(iv) Consider using the color schemes shown in the below tables.
Recommended Colors for Certain Functions Feature Color Warnings Red Flight envelope and system limits, exceedances.
Red or Yellow / Amber as appropriate (see above) Cautions, non-normal sources. Yellow / Amber Scales, dials, tapes, and associated information elements.
White Earth Tan / Brown Sky Blue / Cyan Engaged Modes/normal conditions. Green Glide path and course deviation indicators. Magenta/Green Flight directors or “fly-to” indicators Magenta Divisor lines, units and labels for inactive soft buttons.
Light Gray Specified Colors for Certain Display Features Display Feature Color Set 1 Color Set 2 Fixed reference symbols White White* Current data, values White Green Armed modes White Cyan Selected data, values Green Cyan Selected heading Magenta* Cyan Active route/flight plan Magenta White * Use of other colors for this function may be acceptable as long as they are not flightcrew alerting colors used for conditions that may require pilot action or indicate abnormal conditions.
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(3) Symbology.
(i) One benefit of symbol standards versus other information formats is the compact encoding of information, which minimizes clutter. With careful planning, base the use of symbols upon established industry standards. SAE ARP 4102/7 and ARP 5289 standards provide examples of accepted symbols and symbol sets for PFDs and MFD-navigation displays.
(A) Symbolic encoding of information should remain sufficiently simple for pilots to learn and recall (see section AC 29 MG-20, Human Factors, of this AC). To minimize confusion or misinterpretation, symbols should be easily distinguishable, consistent within the cockpit, and learned with minimal training.
(B) Symbols should not have shapes, colors, or other attributes that are ambiguous or could be confused with the meaning of similar symbols.
(C) The function of symbology should be clear definition and appropriate classification for pilot understanding. Symbols representing the same functions on more than one display should be the same.
(ii) HTAWS, automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B), TCAS, and other applications each have their own defined symbol sets. If these features are included in the installation and will use the EDS displays to show information, then the EDS should use each application’s (HTAWS, ADS-B, TCAS, etc.) defined symbol set.
Assess the symbol sets to ensure they do not contain similar symbology with different meanings.
(iii) The EDS design and integration should provide a means to reduce or “declutter” the EDS of non-essential symbology.
(4) Clutter.
(i) Computer generated displays provide the ability to present a multitude of information. As a result, numerous formats are possible with an electronic display system. However, excessive information on a limited display size can result in clutter, resulting in reduced efficiency of pilot cues, pilot scan, and detection.
(A) The density of information on the display should be compatible with the pilot's ability to recognize essential information and to minimize misinterpretation. At times, pilots may wish to reduce clutter by removing the display of symbols otherwise used during specific phases of flight.
(B) There should be an information prioritization scheme established to ensure the clear presentation of essential information.
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AC 29-2C, Chg 7 2/4/2016 (C) If anticipating clutter, there should be a means provided for manual decluttering. Automatic de-cluttering, such as during specific phases of flight, or during certain alerts, may also be appropriate.
(ii) Clutter should be a major consideration during the reversionary or compacted display modes. When combining essential information on a display after another display or unit fails, the display format should not be confusing and the information should still be usable, including ability to display unusual attitudes.
(iii) Unusual attitude and de-cluttering of the PFD.
(A) All primary attitude displays should provide an immediately discernable attitude recognition capability that fosters a safe and effective unusual attitude recovery capability. The display should provide sufficient cues to enable the pilot to maintain fulltime attitude awareness and minimize potential for spatial disorientation.
(1) The display should support the initiation of recovery from unusual attitudes within 1 second with a minimum correct response rate of 95 percent.
(2) Additional information included on primary flight reference displays should not interfere with maintaining attitude awareness, recovering from an unusual attitude, or the interpretation of any primary flight information. Consider removing information not used in unusual attitude recovery.
(B) Annunciations and Indications.
(1) General. Annunciations and indications include annunciator switches, messages, prompts, flags, and status or mode indications, which are on the flight deck display itself or control a flight deck display. Refer to § 29.1322 for specific annunciations and indications such as warning, caution and advisory level alerts.
(i) Annunciations and indications should be operationally relevant and limited to minimize the adverse effects on flightcrew workload.
(ii) Annunciations and indications should be clear, unambiguous, and consistent with the flight deck design philosophy. When providing annunciation for the status or mode of a system, the annunciation should indicate the actual state of the system and not just the position or selection of a switch. Annunciations should only be indicated while the condition exists.
(2) Location. Annunciations and indications should also be consistently located in a specific area of the electronic display. Annunciations that may require immediate flightcrew awareness should be located in the flightcrew’s forward, primary field of view. There may be CAS messaging presentation in the pilot’s secondary field of view if there is a Master Caution/Warning indicator.
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(3) Attention-getting cues: When selecting the type of attention- getting cue, a text change by itself is typically inadequate to annunciate automatic or uncommanded mode changes.
(i) Use audio tones or voice messages. Keep the number of different tones to a minimum to decrease the possibility of confusion. Aircrew alerts are more noticeable when a combination of audio tone or audio message and a visual cue is used.
(ii) Blinking or Flashing. Blinking information elements such as readouts or pointers can be effective methods of annunciation. However, the use of blinking or flashing should be limited because it can be distracting and excessive use reduces the attention-getting effectiveness. Use blinking rates between 0.8 and 4 hertz, depending on the display technology and the compromise between urgency and distraction. If blinking of an information element can occur for more than approximately 10 seconds, there should be a means provided to cancel the blinking.
(5) Flight and Navigation Display of Information on the PFD.
(i) Flight. At a minimum, the primary flight display portion of the PFD should displays the attitude, airspeed, altitude, and heading. Most EDS flight displays also include navigation guidance in the form of course deviation, and if applicable, vertical glide path deviation. They can also include information on vertical speed indications, radar altitude, and flight guidance mode. If synthetic vision (SV) is incorporated, it should be on the flight display as a “pilot-view out the window” (egocentric) format. If incorporating SV into the flight display, it should provide the same level of accuracy and validity as the other navigation sources. If displayed on the PFD, describing the SV’s intended function as “situational awareness only” or “not required” to justify a lower design assurance level is not acceptable.
(A) Information.
(1) PFI refers to those functions or parameters that are required by the airworthiness and operational regulations such as airspeed, altitude, attitude, and heading (direction). 14 CFR part 29 requires attitude, airspeed, altitude, and heading (direction) as PFI. Most EDS designs include attitude, altitude, airspeed, and heading display in the basic “T” arrangement as defined in § 29.1321. There are specific requirements contained in TSOs for the display of each of these parameters.
Note: TSO approval does not authorize installation of a system or instrument into a rotorcraft. The installation of an instrument or system must meet the certification requirements for the rotorcraft. For example, some attitude indicators carry TSO-C4 approvals but are not qualified for installation in rotorcraft where an ADI is required by the certification rules.
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