AC 29.181. § 29.181 (Amendment 29-24) DYNAMIC STABILITY: CATEGORY A ROTORCRAFT.
a. Explanation. This section requires that Transport Category A rotorcraft, certificated under Amendment 24 of FAR 29, demonstrate positive damping for short-period oscillations (5 seconds or less) at forward speeds from VY to VNE with the cyclic, collective and directional controls held in the desired test condition or released by the pilot. This requirement would prevent persistent or divergent short -period oscillations and thus alleviate the pilot workload to actively dampen oscillatory motions for all types of operations.
b. Procedures.
(1) Tests for short period dynamic stability are carried out in the same manner as for IFR (reference AC 29 Appendix B) except the oscillation need not be damped as heavily (i.e., to ½ amplitude in not more than one cycle). Similarly pulses and doublets may be used to generate an upset condition that would be expected to be encountered in moderate turbulence for that particular rotorcraft.
(2) Tests should be conducted at the critical gross weight, altitude, center of gravity, rotor RPM, and power conditions during routine climb, cruise, and descent condition for speeds from VY to VNE. This test must be conducted with the minimum amount of stability augmentation approved for continued safe flight. Consideration should be given to optional equipment that are to be mounted externally.
(3) This requirement is not applicable to transport category rotorcraft certificated as Category B only. The requirements for this situation are unchanged.
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SUBPART B - FLIGHT
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS AC 29.231. § 29.231 GENERAL (GROUND AND WATER HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS).
a. Explanation. The rule states: “The rotorcraft must have satisfactory ground and water handling characteristics, including freedom from uncontrollable tendencies in any condition expected in operation.” In addition, §§ 29.235, 29.239, and 29.241, contain specific requirements concerning ground and water handling characteristic evaluations.
b. Procedures.
(1) During the flight test program and the F&R program (§ 21.35(b)(2)), the rotorcraft will be subjected to evaluations at various weight and CG conditions. Any uncontrollable tendencies found during these test programs must be corrected.
(2) Controllable or damped vibrations or oscillations on the ground or in the water are acceptable, provided the design limits of the rotorcraft are not exceeded.
(3) Any significant vibration or oscillation characteristics found during tests should be described in the test report, and the rotorcraft flight manual should contain appropriate descriptions and procedures to describe and either avoid or handle significant characteristics.
(4) For rotorcraft equipped with wheel gear, the evaluation should include takeoff, landing, and taxi at the maximum airspeed and ground speed CG extremes. If a nose or tail wheel lock/swivel control is installed, each position should be evaluated for limiting takeoff, landing, and taxi speeds. Maximum substantiated speed values should be included in the RFM as limitations.
(5) For water operations, the wave height and frequency or “sea state” should be included as a limitation or, if no limit was reached during testing, the demonstrated values should be placed in the Performance Section of the Rotorcraft Flight Manual.
Information or limits on the allowable “sea state” for rotor startup and shutdown should also be included.
AC 29.235. § 29.235 TAXIING CONDITION .
a. Explanation. The rotorcraft is designed for certain landing load factors (§§ 29.471 and 29.473). The rotorcraft must not attain a load factor in excess of the design load factor when taxied over the roughest ground that may reasonably be expected in normal operation at the expected taxi speeds. This rule applies to wheel landing gear equipped rotorcraft.
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b. Procedures. The structural substantiation data contains the allowable design limits for the rotorcraft. A calibrated accelerometer or load factor “g” meter should be installed, as near as practicable to the rotorcraft CG, to record the maximum vertical load factor attained. Instrumentation of the landing gear and/or related structure may also be an acceptable means of showing compliance.
(1) Calibrated instrumentation should be installed to record the maximum loads or maximum vertical load factor attained during the taxi tests.
(2) The taxi surface should be evaluated for compliance with the rule.
Corrugated surfaces, as well as broken or uneven surfaces, in accordance with the rule, should be used.
(3) Representative typical taxi speeds, up to the maximum selected by the applicant, should be attained over the selected taxi surfaces.
(4) A light and heavy rotorcraft weight condition should be evaluated.
(5) Limitations appropriate for the rotorcraft design should be included in the flight manual. If these tests indicate that it is unlikely that limit load factors will be attained while taxiing, flight manual limitations may not be necessary.
(6) Pertinent taxi information obtained from these test conditions may be included in normal procedures of the flight manual.
AC 29.239. § 29.239 SPRAY CHARACTERISTICS.
a. Explanation. The intent of this requirement is to evaluate by demonstration that water spray does not obscure visibility (day or night) or damage the rotorcraft during normal waterborne operation (for those rotorcraft which have waterborne or amphibious capability).
b. Procedures.
(1) The following maneuvers should be evaluated in ambient conditions up to the proposed sea state or wave height for operation.
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Con- Rotor Altifig. Condition Weight CG RPM tude Remarks 1 Taxi Max Optional Max SL Speeds up to maximum proposed for water operation.
2 Hover Max Opt Max - Determine critical hover height, if any.
3 Takeoff Max Opt Max SL Unstick at maximum proposed water operation speed.
4 Land Max Opt Max SL Touchdown at maximum proposed for water operation.
5 Shutdown Opt Opt - SL Shut down the rotorcraft.
6 Start Max Opt Max SL Start engines and release rotor brake.
(2) The maximum sea state or wave height evaluated under this rule should be stated and included in the limitations section of the flight manual.
(3) The effect of saltwater contamination and deterioration of turbine engines and other component parts of the rotorcraft should be considered in accordance with § 29.609 and paragraph AC 29.609. Information on saltwater effect and attendant corrective action should be provided in the flight manual, if appropriate, and in the maintenance manual.
AC 29.241. § 29.241 GROUND RESONANCE.
a. Explanation.
(1) The rule states: “The rotorcraft may have no dangerous tendency to oscillate on the ground with the rotor turning.” This rule is a flight requirement that pertains to demonstrating freedom from dangerous oscillations on the ground. CAR Part 7, predecessor to FAR Part 29, originally contained a “strength requirement,” under § 7.203, requiring ground vibration tests. This test would identify critical vibration frequencies and modes of the rotorcraft. CAR Part 7, Amendment 7-4, effective October 1, 1959, removed this ground vibration requirement because the agency concluded that if any major component has a natural frequency which could be excited by some operating parameter, such a condition would be revealed in the course of other ground and flight tests. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) apparently was depending on demonstrations under § 7.131/§ 29.241 and the flight load survey data Page B - 120
(§ 29.571) to satisfy the objective of the vibration test. However, FAR 29, Amendment 29-3, contained new § 29.663 adding reliability and damping action investigation requirements for ground resonance prevention means. A ground vibration survey was not reinstituted by the adoption of § 29.663. Compliance with § 29.663 does require investigation and substantiation as stated. See paragraph AC 29.663.
(2) “Ground resonance” is a mechanical instability of the aircraft while in contact with the ground, often when partially airborne. Stated another way “ground resonance” is a self-excited mechanical instability that involves coupling between the in-plane motion of the rotor blade and the motion of the rotorcraft as a whole on its landing gear (reference “Aerodynamics of the Helicopter,” Gessow & Myers, page 308).
It is caused by the motion of the blade in the plane of rotation (called in-plane vibration) coupled with a rocking or vertical motion of the aircraft as a whole. The tires, landing gear, and rotor restraint pylon structure act as a spring with a vibration frequency which coincides or couples with the natural in-plane frequency of the blade about a real or effective drag hinge in the plane of rotation. When the frequencies of the two motions (rotor and airframe) approach each other and couple, a violent shaking of the aircraft may occur which, if undamped, could result in the destruction of the rotorcraft.
(3) Ground resonance can occur due to flexibility in the rotor pylon restraint system as well as with landing gear flexibilities. This mode of vibration or resonance can happen in-flight (called air resonance) as well as on the ground and should be addressed in the certification program. The evaluation should include variations in stiffness and damping that could occur in service to the rotor pylon restraints (reference “Ground Vibrations of Helicopters,” M.L. Deutsch, JAS, Vol. 13, No. 5, May 1946). See paragraph AC 29.663 for the investigation of the variations.
(4) Ground resonance may be prevented by placing the first order in-plane vibration frequency above the rotor turning speed.
(5) For such configurations which are not susceptible to ground resonance (first order in-plane frequency above rotor turning speed), a simple rotor RPM run-up and run-down with appropriate cyclic control displacement (i.e., excitation of any inherent vibrations) is adequate demonstration that a ground resonance condition does not exist.
Unhinged “rigid” rotors, such as Bell Helicopter 2 blade designs, are this type of rotor system.
(6) For configurations that are susceptible to ground resonance (i.e., first in-plane frequency is below the rotor turning speed), ground resonance is generally prevented by dampers on the blade, acting in the plane of rotation, dampers on the landing gear (sometimes serving as oleo struts), or proper placement of the landing gear frequencies combined with rotor and/or landing gear dampers.
(7) Elastomeric components (in the rotor pylon support system, possibly in the landing gear, and possibly in the rotor head) are significantly affected by ambient temperature prior to warm-up. Their damping characteristics require thorough Page B - 121
investigation for the range of rotorcraft operating environment as noted in paragraph AC 29.663.
b. Procedures.
(1) In operation, the resonance characteristics should be checked during takeoff and landing at zero speed and during run-on landings using various power values. Under all conditions, any oscillations which may be introduced should be damped. However, no instability should occur at any operating condition such as during RPM changes from minimum to maximum and idle to maximum. For rotorcraft with wheel gear, uneven taxi surfaces in conjunction with particular taxi speeds, may excite ground resonance and should be evaluated by taxiing on typical surfaces. This evaluation may be conducted in conjunction with tests of § 29.235.
(2) Slow vertical landings for each configuration are made to establish the touchdown collective pitch angle for each rotor speed. For those aircraft equipped with Stability Augmentation Systems (SAS), all ground resonance investigations should be conducted with SAS on and SAS off. This includes the hovering and running takeoffs and landings, taxi tests, and specific ground resonance tests noted herein.
Consideration should be given to conducting tests in various SAS configurations such as roll channel on, pitch channel off, where such configurations are possible and authorized.
(3) For each rotorcraft configuration tested, the aircraft should be positioned on the ground in flat pitch with the rotor stabilized at the minimum practical rotational speed, or optionally, at a speed shown analytically to have significant margin from indicated resonant conditions. Control system inputs should be used to disturb the system for evaluation of subsequent damping.
(4) For each incremental increase in rotor speed and for each rotor speed setting at increments of collective pitch settings, cyclic and collective inputs should be investigated prior to proceeding to the next rotor speed setting. These inputs should cover the appropriate range and combinations of amplitude and frequency.
(5) Cyclic pitch inputs should be made, either by the pilot through the cyclic stick, or through a signal generating device working in conjunction with the cyclic controls. For each frequency of input, amplitude of the inputs should be increased incrementally and ultimately should be large enough to generate responses representative of normal ground and flight operation on the rotor and support system.
The inputs should continue for a time sufficient to execute five complete counterclockwise circles of the cyclic stick (about neutral) at the selected frequency.
(6) At each amplitude of cyclic input, the excitation frequency should be incrementally increased over the range of the blade in-plane frequency in the fixed system. Rotor speed settings should be increased to 1.05 times the maximum power-on rotor speed. Collective pitch settings should be increased in increments of Page B - 122
not more than 20 percent to maximum collective or alternately to the collective setting required to become partially airborne (when the cyclic is displaced as noted).
(7) Typically, articulated rotor aircraft have natural frequencies on the blade in lag of approximately 0.3 times the power-on main rotor RPM; soft in-plane rotors have natural frequencies approximately 0.7 times the main rotor RPM. Therefore, for example, for a rotorcraft with an in-plane frequency of 0.3/rev, operating at 300 RPM, and with 6 inches of total lateral cyclic stick displacement, the stick should be rotated for 5 revolutions in a 0.6-inch diameter circle at ((1-.03) x 300 RPM) or 3.5 cycles per second to attempt excitation of possible resonant frequencies. At the conclusion of the excitation, the cyclic stick should be returned to the neutral position while continuing the recording of data listed in paragraph b(13).
(8) The complete program should again be repeated with cyclic excitation inputs from the directional and longitudinal controls, if critical for the type of rotorcraft being evaluated.
(9) If onset of ground resonance is encountered, the typical recommended corrective action is to increase the collective pitch and rotor speed and become airborne. However, lowering the collective pitch has been effective for some designs and is considered a satisfactory procedure if resonance can be consistently avoided.
(10) Landings should be made at the maximum touchdown speed proposed with the rotor speed stabilized.
(11) Special Considerations:
(i) The influence of variables including environmental effects, corresponding aircraft component characteristic changes, operational parameters, and surface conditions should be investigated over the ranges proposed for certification.
Additionally, the potential of misservicing and possible failure modes should be evaluated. For ground resonance qualification, where practical, variations from the baseline test configuration may be accomplished by either ground run (§ 29.663(b)) requires investigation of probable ranges of damping), analyses, component tests, aircraft shake test, the specification of special operational procedures in the rotorcraft flight manual, or combination thereof. Detailed and rational analyses showing acceptable correlation to the baseline tests, and for which the input parameters were verified by drawings, calculations, component static or dynamic tests, or by aircraft shake tests simulating the conditions/configurations in question, may be used to limit testing to only those variables and operational conditions showing marginal or unacceptable system damping. All operational limitations should be clearly stated in the rotorcraft flight manual. A report of the analytical and/or test results should be permitted per § 29.663.
(ii) Potential instability while airborne, called “air resonance” may occur due to the dynamic coupling of the rotor flexibility and the pylon restraint flexibility. The Page B - 123
same considerations apply to air resonance as to ground resonance except that the pylon restraint variables replace the landing gear variables. Air resonance should be addressed in the certification program.
(iii) When operating on the ground, there may be a tendency for the aircraft to exhibit a “ground bounce.” For many configurations, this is a benign, although undesirable phenomenon which may be aggravated by pilot induced oscillations (PIO), particularly if there is little or no friction on the collective.
(12) On rotorcraft with fully articulated rotor heads equipped with landing gear oleos in either skid or wheel configuration, there are tendencies for ground bounce to occur when light on the oleos, either just prior to takeoff or just after landing contact, or during a power assurance check. This bounce may induce ground resonance, particularly if the intensity of the bounce is aggravated by PIO. The corrective action is either to lift off to a hover or to positively lower the collective and remain on the ground.
(13) Instrumentation and Data Acquisition.
(i) Atmospheric Conditions (to be manually noted):
Altitude OAT Wind Velocity
(ii) Aircraft Configuration (to be manually noted):
Gross Weight C.G.
Tire Pressure Landing Gear Oleo Pressure
(iii) Instrumentation (for recording during test).
Main Rotor RPM.
Time history of cyclic control fore-and-aft and lateral stick position Time history of collective control stick position Time history of rotor damper motion* Time history of pylon component motion* Time history of landing gear (oleo) motion* Time history of aircraft motions* *As required to obtain modal damping Page B - 124
SUBPART B - FLIGHT
MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS AC 29.251. § 29.251 VIBRATION.
a. Explanation.
(1) Each part of the rotorcraft must be free from excessive vibration under each appropriate speed and power condition (rule statement).
(2) This flight requirement may be both a qualitative and quantitative flight evaluation. Section 29.571(a) contains the flight load survey requirement that results in accumulation of vibration quantitative data. Section 29.629 generally requires quantitative data to show freedom from flutter for each part of the rotorcraft including control or stabilizing surfaces and rotors. See paragraphs AC 29.571 and 29.629 for these two rules.
(3) Review Case No. 70 (reference FAA Order 8110.6) contains a policy 0statement concerning compliance with this rule. This policy statement is condensed here for convenience:
“The rotorcraft must be capable of attaining a 30° bank angle (turn), at VNE, with maximum continuous power (maximum continuous torque) without encountering excessive roughness/vibration. The FAA/AUTHORITY requires the maneuver demonstration to provide the pilot with some maneuver capability at VNE , and further to provide the pilot some margin away from roughness when operating in turbulence.”
(This maneuver may result in a descent or a climb.)
(4) Section 29.1505 pertains to VNE determination. Section 29.1509 pertains to rotor speed limits determination. See paragraphs AC 29.1505 and AC 29.1509.
b. Procedures.
(1) During the company flight test program, the rotorcraft is flown to the appropriate rotor and airspeed limits at several weights to prove that the rotorcraft is free from excessive vibration under appropriate speed, power, and weight conditions.
The flight loads survey quantitative data (reference § 29.571) and the applicant’s qualitative and quantitative flight test data must also prove compliance with the requirement prior to issuing an authorization for official FAA/AUTHORITY flight tests.
(2) The flight load survey data obtained under § 29.571(a) will contain measured data concerning proof of freedom from flutter and excessive vibration.
Pertinent critical flight conditions will be reinvestigated during FAA/AUTHORITY flight tests. The specific condition or conditions necessary to demonstrate compliance with § 29.251 varies with the rotorcraft design, and with the minimum and maximum rotor Page B - 125
speeds, VNE and VD speeds, and weight and CG position. An illustration of the speed and RPM demonstration is shown in figure AC 29.251-1. Also see subparagraph b(4).
(3) The airspeed and rotor speed limits investigated and established under §§ 29.33, 29.1503, 29.1505, and 29.1509 are also investigated and made a matter of record in the flight loads survey data. During the official FAA/AUTHORITY/TIA flight tests, critical parts of the rotorcraft may have limited instrumentation to reinvestigate and confirm that the critical conditions investigated during the flight load survey are satisfactory and do not result in excessive vibration. Use of instrumentation is optional if the flight loads data (reference paragraph AC 29.571) are conclusive.
(4) FAA policy for certification (Review Case No. 70) requires a “rotor roughness” flight demonstration of a 30° bank angle left and right, at maximum continuous power (MCP) (maximum continuous torque which may be in excess of the maximum continuous temperature limit), at VNE. To provide the pilot with some margin from roughness, the FAA requires maneuver demonstrations of 30°banked turns at VNE without encountering excessive roughness. The maneuver should be conducted with the rotor speed at the minimum RPM and maximum RPM limits. During the flight load survey, this condition should be investigated and data recorded to assure hazardous loads are not encountered for this “unusual” condition. As indicated, the flight condition will be reinvestigated during the FAA/AUTHORITY flight tests. See paragraph b(2) for illustration of this speed and RPM demonstration.
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0° Bank, Autorotation Level Forward Flight, 105% Max RPM Power-Off g 4 Power-On 30° Bank, Power-On Max RPM Power-Off 02 Max RPM Power-On a7 д 6 ROTOR RPM -Min RPM Power-On ш 8 д 5 Min RPM Power-Off 01 95% Min RPM Power-Off o 3 VNE 1.11 VNE
AIRSPEED
1. Autorotation at 1.11 VNE (AR) at minimum placard rotor speed.
2. Autorotation at 1.11 NNE (AR) at maximum placard rotor speed.
3. Autorotation at NNE (AR) at power-off minimum design limit rotor speed
4. Autorotation at NNE (AR) at power-off maximum design limit rotor speed
5. Forward flight 1.11 VE at minimum power-on rotor speed.
6. Forward flight 1.11 VNE at maximum power-on rotor speed.
7. Right and left turn at VE at maximum power-on rotor speed with 30° bank angle.
8. Right and left turn at VE at minimum power-on rotor speed with 30° bank angle.
Note: VNE (AR) may be less than VNE • FIGURE AC 29.251-1 DEMONSTRATION POINTS Page B - 127