Par 2- Page 2-40 TABLE 2-2. Cotton and Linen, Tapes and Threads.
Materials
Specification
Yarn Size Minimum Tensile Strength Yards Per Pound
Use and Remarks
Reinforcing tape, cotton.
MIL-T-566 1 E, Type 1 MIL-Y-1140H
150 pounds per 1/2 inch width.
Used as reinforcing tape on fabric and under rib lacing cord. Strength of other widths approx. in proportion.
Lacing cord, prewaxed braided cotton.
Federal T-C-57 1F
40 pounds.
310 minimum.
Lacing fabric to structures. Unless already waxed, must be lightly waxed before using.
Lacing cord, braided cotton.
MIL-C-5648A
80 pounds.
170 minimum.
Lacing fabric to structures. Unless already waxed, must be lightly waxed before using.
Lacing cord thread, high tenacity cotton.
MIL-T-5660B
Ticket No.
10.
62 pounds.
480 minimum.
Lacing fabric to structures. Unless already waxed, must be lightly waxed before using.
Machine thread cotton Federal V-T- 276H
20/4 ply
5 pounds.
5,000 nominal.
Use for all machine sewing.
Hand-Sewing thread cotton.
Federal V-T- 276H Type III B
8/4 ply
14 pounds.
1,650 nominal.
Use for all hand-sewing.
Use fully waxed thread.
Finishing (Surface) tape cotton.
Same as fabric used.
Same as fabric used.
Use over seams, leading edges, trailing edges, outer edges and ribs, pinked, raveled or straight edges.
Fairing Precautions. Aluminum leading edge replacement fairings installed in short sections may telescope during normal spar bending loads or from thermal expansion and contraction. This action may cause a wrinkle to form in th e fabric, at the edge of the lap joint. Leading edge fairing sections may be fastened together with rivets or screws to prevent telescoping after installation. Trailing edges should be adequately secured to prevent movement and wrinkles.
Dope Protection . Solvents found in nitrate and butyrate dope will penetrate, wrinkle, lift, or dissolve most one-part wood varnishes and one-part metal primers. All wood surfaces th at come in contact with doped fabric should be treated with a protective coating such as aluminum foil, cellulose tape, or dope-proof paint to protect them against the action of the solvents in the dope. This can also be accomplished by recoating with a suitable, solvent resistant two-part epoxy varnish, which will be impervious to solvent penetration and damage after curing. Clad aluminum and stainless steel parts need not be dope-proofed.
A solvent-sensitive primer on ferrous metal and aluminum alloy components which will be in contact with fabric may be protected from solvent damage by overcoating with a two-part epoxy primer. Epoxy primer meeting MIL-P-53022B is acceptable.
Small metal or wood surfaces, such as rib caps, to which fabric will not be dope bonded as a part of the particular fabric attachment procedure may be protected from dope damage by cellophane tape or aluminum foil.
Chafe Protection. Fabric and finishing tape is often cut through with sandpaper over sharp edges during the coating and finishing procedure and later polishing. All sharp metal edges or protruding screws, nails, rivets, and bolt heads should be covered with an anti-chafe tape to prevent cutting and wearing through the fabric after installation. Use
Par 2-6 Page 2-41 appropriate non-bleeding cotton adhesive coated tape, finishing tape, or strips of fabric, cut from the fabric being used to cover the aircraft, doped in place.
Small holes cut through the fabric to accommodate flying wires, control cables, and fittings, must be reinforced with finishing tape or fabric patches cut from the same fabric used for the covering.
Areas needing additional chafe protection such as control cables routed firm against the fabric surface should be protected with patches cut from cotton duck, leather, or plastic. These patches may be sewn, doped, or cemented in place, as appropriate.
Any drag and anti-drag wires in the wings should be protected from chafing at cross points.
Inter-Rib Bracing. Use a woven fabric tape of the same quality and width as th at used for the rib lace reinforcing, where so incorporated in the wing design by the original aircraft manufacturer. When the original routing for the inter rib bracing is not known, the tape will be routed diagonally, a lternating between the top and bottom of each rib cap on each successive rib, if a single pair, half way between the front and rear spars.
The number of tape pairs will duplicate the original aircraft manufacturer’s installation. Tapes will be routed continuously from the wing butt to the wingtip bow, with one turn of tape around each intermediate rib cap strip. Care should be given to position the tape so as not to interfere with control cables, bellcranks or push-pull rods.
Preparation of Plywood Surfaces for Covering. Prior to covering plywood surfaces, prepare the surface by sanding, cleaning, and applying sealer and dope. When plywood surfaces are to be c overed with light weight glass fiber deck cloth instead of fabric, no sealer or dope should be applied to the plywood as it would inhibit penetration of epoxy resin.
Sand plywood surfaces as needed to remove old loose dope or varnish residue to provide a clean bonding surface. Remove any oil, grease, or other contamination with a suitable solvent such as naphtha. Small, rough areas and irregularities in the plywood surface and around any plywood repairs may be filled and smoothed with an appropriate commercial grade wood filler. Filling large warp depressions on plywood surfaces with a wood filler for cosmetic purposes is not acceptable.
After cleaning and sanding all plywood surfaces, seal the wood grain with a suitable solvent resistant two-part epoxy varnish. After the varnish has thoroughly dried, apply two brush or spray coats of clear dope, allowing sufficient drying time between coats.
FABRIC SEAMS. Seams parallel to the line of flight are preferable; however, spanwise seams are acceptable.
Sewn Seams.
Machine-sewn seams should be double stitched using any of the styles illustrated in figure 2-1 A, B, C, or D. A machine-sewn seam used to close an envelope at a wingtip, wing trailing edge, empennage and control surface trailing edge, and a fuselage longeron may be made with a single stitch when the seam will be positioned over a structure. (See figure 2-1 E.) The envelope size should accommodate fittings or other small protrusions with minimum excess for installation. Thick or protruding leading edge sewn seams should be avoided on thin airfoils with a sharp leading edge radius because they may act as a stall strip.
Par 2-6 Page 2-42 Hand sew, with plain overthrow or baseball stitches at a minimum of four stitches per inch, or permanent tacking, to the point where uncut fabric or a machine-sewn seam is reached. Lock hand sewing at a maximum of 10 stitch intervals with a double half hitch, and tie off the end stitch with a double half hitch. At the point where the hand-sewing or permanent tacking is necessary, cut the fabric so that it can be doubled under a minimum of 3/8 inch before sewing or permanent tacking is performed. (See figure 2-2.)
After hand sewing is complete, any temporary tacks used to secure the fabric over wood structures may be removed.
Cover a sewn spanwise seam on a wing’s leading edge with a minimum 4-inch wide pinked-edged surface tape with the tape centered on the seam.
Cover a spanwise-sewn seam at the wing trailing edge with pinked-edge surface tape that is at least 3 inches wide. For aircraft with never-exceed speeds in excess of 200 mph, cut V notches at least 1 inch in depth and 1/4 inch in width in both edges of the surface tape when used to cover spanwise seams on trailing edges of control surfaces. Space notches at intervals not exceeding 6 inches.
On tape less than 3 inches wide, the notches should be 1/3 the tape width. In the event the surface tape begins to separate because of poor adhesion or other causes, the tape will tear at a notched section, thus preventing progressive loosening of the entire length of the tape which could seriously affect the controllability of the aircraft. A loose tape acts as a trim tab only on a movable surface. It becomes a spoiler on a fixed surface and has no effect at the trailing edge other than drag.
Make spanwise-sewn seams on the wing’s upper or lower surfaces in a manner that will minimize any protrusions. Cover the seams with finishing tape at least 3 inches wide, centering the tape on the seam.
Sewn seams parallel to the line of flight (chordwise) may be located over ribs.
However, careful attention must be given to avoid damage to the seam threads by rib lace needles, screws, rivets, or wire clips that are used to attach the fabric to the rib. Cover chordwise seams with a finishing tape at least 3 inches wide with the tape centered on the seam.
Doped Seams.
For an overlapped and doped spanwise seam on a wing’s leading edge, overlap the fabric at least 4 inches and cover with finishing tape at least 4 inches wide, with the tape centered at the outside edge of the overlap seam.
For an overlapped and doped spanwise seam at the trailing edge, lap the fabric at least 3 inches and cover with pinked-edge surface tape at least 4 inches wide, with the tape centered on the outside edge of the overlap seam.
For an overlapped and doped seam on wingtips, wing butts, perimeters of wing control surfaces, perimeters of empennage surfaces, and all fuselage areas, overlap the fabric 2 inches and cover with a finishing tape that is at least 3 inches wide, centered on the outside edge of the overlap seam.
For an overlapped and doped seam on a wing’s leading edge, on aircraft with a velocity never exceed (Vne) speed up to and including 150 mph, overlap the fabric 2 inches and cover with a finishing tape that is at least 3 inches wide, with the tape centered on the outside edge of the overlap seam.
1/16" 3/8* - 1/16" 116→ 1114"→ 1/16"
STITCHING
•STITCHING A. PLAIN OVERLAP SEAM, STRAIGHT EDGE B. FRENCH FELL SEAM 1/16" 3/8" - 1/16" 1/4"
STITCHING C. FOLDED FELL SEAM
STITCHING STEP 1 1/16"-
•3/8** 1/16" STEP 2 STITCHING E. SINGLE STITCH SEAM TO CLOSE AN
ENVELOPE WHEN THE STITCH WILL
BE LOCATED OVER A STRUCTURE D. MODIFIED FOLDED FELL SEAM SEWN IN
TWO STEPS FIGURE 2-1. Fabric seams.
Par 2-7 Page 2-43
USE A T-PIN THROUGH THE FABRIC
STRAPS TO TEMPORARILY SECURE
THE FABRIC COVERING AND REMOVE AS HAND SEWN SEAM PROGRESSES MINIMUM 4 STITCHES PER INCH.
TOP COVER
- FORMER (A) ATTACHING FABRIC AT AILERON CUTOUT
TOP COVER / TOP COVER
FINISH WITH TAPE SPACING 1-1/4"'
OR CLOSER
TEMPORARY TACKS MAY BE USED TO SECURE FABRIC IN POSITION FOR HAND- SEWN SEAMS OVER A WOOD STRUCTURE. PERMANENT TACKS MAY BE USED
TO SECURE FABRIC AT WING BUTT STRUCTURES IN LIEU OF A HAND-SEWN
SEAM AND SHOULD BE OF THE APPROPRIATE LENGTH AND GAUGE, AND MADE OF CORROSION RESISTANT STEEL OR BRASS.
FIGURE 2-2. Typical methods of attaching fabric.
Par 2-7 Page 2-44
Par 2-7 Page 2-45 For an overlapped and doped seam on the perimeter of a wing (except a leading edge), perimeters of wing control surfaces, perimeters of empennage surfaces, and all areas of a fuselage, on aircraft with a Vne speed up to and including 150 mph, overlap the fabric 1 inch and cover with a finishing tape that is at least 3 inches wide, centered on the outside edge of the overlap seam.
COVERING METHODS. The method of fabric attachment should be identical, as far as strength and reliability are concerned, to the method used by the manufacturer of the airplane being recovered or repaired. Carefully remove the old fabric from the airframe, noting the location of inspection covers, drain grommets, and method of attachment. Cotton or linen fabric may be applied so that either the warp or fill-threads are parallel to the line of flight. Either the envelope method or blanket method of covering is acceptable.
The Envelope Method. A wing envelope may be developed by two methods. Machine sew together, side by side multiple fabric sections, cut to reach chordwise around the wing, starting a nd ending at the trailing edge with a minimum of 1 inch excess length. The sewn envelope is then positioned around the wing and secured with closely spaced T- Head pins at the wingtip and trailing edge. Excess material may then be trimmed. Carefully remove the envelope and complete by machine sewing at the wi ngtip and along the trailing edge, except where the geometry of the wing (aileron and flap cut out) would prevent the sewn envelope from being reinstalled. After reinstalling the envelope, the un-sewn sections and butt end are then closed by handsewn or overlapped and doped seams in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed. (Refer to paragraph 2-7 b.)
An alternative method, when fabric of sufficient width is available, is to sew together, side-by-side, two sections of fabric, placing the seams spanwise on the leading edge, then fit and sew the wingtip and trailing edge in the same manner as the multiple piece chordwise envelope.
An envelope may be developed for the fuselage in the same manner, with a final closing along a longeron by hand-sewn or overlapped and doped seams in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed.
The Blanket Method. A blanket is developed by sewing together, side-by-side, multiple sections of fabric with the seams chordwise or two wide sections of fabric, side-by-side, placing the seam spanwise on the leading edge, the same as an envelope. Close the three remaining sides with a hand-sewn seam or overlapped and doped seams in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed. Small components may be covered by wrapping one piece of fabric over a st raight leading or trailing edge, then closing three sides with hand-stitched or overlapped and doped seams in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed.
NOTE: All overlapped and doped seams will be made only over underlying supporting structures extending the full width of the seam.
Machine-sewn alternate. An alternate to machinesewn seams on a wing envelope or blanket is to use two sections of wide fabric spanwise. Attach the fabric with overlapped and doped seams at the leading and trailing edge, wingtip and wing butt, in accordance with the aircraft Vne speeds. (Reference paragraph 2-7 b.)
Smaller components may be covered in the same manner. The fuselage may be covered with multiple fabric sections with
Par 2-7 Page 2-46 overlapped and doped seams on the longerons or other wide fabric-forming structur es in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed. (Reference paragraph 2-7 b.)
Holes in Fabric. Never cut any holes in the fabric for inspection panels, spar fittings, or drain grommets; or attach the fabric to the airframe with rib lacing screws, rivets, clips, or rib stitch cord until the fabric has been semi-tauted and stabilized with several coats of dope.
REINFORCING TAPE.
Reinforcing tape should be securely bonded to the fabric surface with dope before cord lacing or installation of hardware. Where multiple attachments are in close proximity, such as on a wing rib, continuous reinforcing tape should be installed, extending at least 1 inch past the last attachment at each end. Random or wide spacing, such as on fuselage stringers or empennage surfaces, may be reinforced with 2-inch lengths of reinforcing tape centered on the attachment location.
Reinforcing tapes should be of the appropriate width for hardware attachment such as screws, rivets, wire clips, etc., which pierce the center of the tape.
Reinforcing tape under cord lacing should be the same width as the rib to which the fabric is laced and may be comprised of multiple widths positioned side-by-side to achieve the required width.
When the aircraft Vne speed is over 250 mph, anti-tear strips, cut from the same quality fabric used to cover the aircraft, are recommended for use under reinforcing tape on the entire top surface of the wing and on the portion of the wing’s bottom surface in the propeller slipstream. The propeller slipstream is considered to be the propeller diameter plus one outboard rib. The anti-tear strip should be installed completely around the wing, beginning and ending at the trailing edge in the propeller slipstream, and installed from the trailing edge over the leading edge and back under to the front spar on the balance of the ribs. Anti-tear strips should extend 1/2 inch past the wing rib cap edges and be thoroughly bonded to the fabric with dope before the reinforcing tape is installed.
(See figure 2-3.)
FIGURE 2-3. Exploded side view of rib.
Par 2-10 Page 2-47 LACING.
Fabric should be attached to aircraft components to prevent ballooning due to aerodynamic forces, in the identical manner and locations as used by the original aircraft manufacturer. Any deviation from the original method(s) of attachment, such as screws, rivets, wire clips, lacing cord, etc., are considered a major alteration and in conflict with the aircraft type design data.
Obtain FAA approval on any deviation.
NOTE: When the type of rib lace knot used by the original aircraft manufacturer is not known, the modified seine knot shown in figure 2-4 through figure 2-9c will be used.
FIGURE 2-4. Standard external modified seine knot used for single and double rib lacing.
During the installation of lacing cord through a wing or any other component, special attention should be given to avoid interference with the routing of any control cable, bellcrank, or any other movable item. To prevent chafing and cutting of the lacing cord, control cables or any other movable items should be tensioned or positioned to their normal alignment before rib lacing and checked afterwards to ensure adequate clearance.
When a lace cord will be chafed by a moving component, a blindstitch may be made around the top and bottom rib caps as illustrated in figure 2-11.
Stationary structures interfering with needle routing may be circumvented by aligning the needle forward or aft adjacent to the rib cap. Pull the needle through the wing and then return through the same hole and exit at the desired adjacent location.
NOTE: The first lace on a wing rib should be spaced from the leading edge fairing no more than 1/2 the required lace spacing for the balance of the rib.
Both surfaces of fabric covering on wings and control surfaces must be securely fast ened to the ribs by lacing cord or any other method originally approved for the aircraft. Care must be taken to insure that all sharp edges against which the lacing cord may bear are protected by tape in order to prevent abrasion of the cord. Separate lengths of lacing cord may be joined by the splice knot shown in figure 2-10 or tied off. The first loop is tied with a square knot as illustrated in figure 2-5 and figure 2-9a, and the knot secured with a half hitch on each side afte r the lacing is pulled tight around the rib. The needle is then routed through the wing and around the rib cap at the
SECOND STITCH OF STANDARD LACING (SINGLE (SHOWN) OR DOUBLE)
HALF HITCH AROUND STITCH LOOPS C
WITH LEAD A BEFORE PROCEEDING TO
SECOND STITCH
LOCK SQUARE KNOT WITH HALF HITCH LEAD A AROUND STITCH LOOPS C WITH END B.
CUT OFF SURPLUS OF END B.
AFT -FINISHED FIRST KNOT.
CAPSTRIP 2- TIE SQUARE KNOT
ON CAPSTRIP WITH LEAD A AND END B.
REINFORCING TAPE (same width as the rib).
• LEAD A END B
STITCH LOOPS C
CAPSTRIP START OF
FIRST KNOT S = NORMAL STITCH SPACING
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTS LACING AROUND ENTIRE RIB.
\ TIE SQUARE KNOT ON FIRST STEP OF S/2 CENTER OF CAPSTRIP
STARTING STITCH
LEADING EDGE FAIRING FIGURE 2-5. Starting stitch for rib lacing.
Par 2-10 Page 2-48
Modified Seine Knot , Single Loop lacing Aft Reinforcing Tape (should be same width as the rib) Capstrip Capstrip S Reinforcing tape (Same width as Rib Cap) Schematic represents lacing around entire rib.
Starting stitch S = Normal stitch spacing Wing Leading Edge Fairing FIGURE 2-6. Standard single-loop lacing.
Par 2-10 Page 2-49
- Pull No. 4
COMPLETED KNOT Edge of capstrip Pul No. 4 - 10 lb.
to complete knot Edge of capstrip Pull No. 3 pull snug OPERATION NO. 2
- Direction of lacing Pull No. 2 - 5 1b.
to tighten stitch Stitch loops around capstrip Pull No. 1 - 10 lb. From preceding to tighten loops stitch OPERATION NO. 1 FIGURE 2-7. Standard knot for double-loop lacing.
Par 2-10 Page 2-50
- Moditied Seine Knot Double loop lacing
• Reinforcing Tape (Same width as rib)
- Capstrip Capstnp - S Reinforcing tape (Same width as Rib Cap) Schematic represents lacing around entire nib.
Starting stitch S = NORMAL STITCH SPACING Wing Leading Edge Fairing FIGURE 2-8. Standard double-loop lacing (optional).
Par 2-10 Page 2-51