Par 2-11 Page 2-57
F IGURE 2-12. Fabric attachment spacing.
When the lace spacing on the empennage surfaces and fuselage, where so incorporat ed by the original aircraft manufacturer, cannot be determined, a maximum spacing equal to two times the spacing shown in figure 2-12 for the slipstream area on the wings may be used.
The installations of fabric attachments such as screws, rivets, wire clips, and rib lacing should be delayed until the fabric is stabilized and pulled taut with dope. This action is delaye d to avoid pulling wing ribs and other structures out of alignment or tearing the fabric at attachment points as the fabric becomes taut.
All lacing should be installed adjacent to the structure to which the fabric is being laced, to avoid tearing the fabric and/or creating slack in the cord loop when a load is applied. Where plastic washers were used by the aircraft manufacturer to provide increased pull-through resistance, under the heads of rivets or screws, the same diameter aluminum washer may be used as replacement. Aluminum washers are used because th ey are not affected by solvents found in adhesives or dopes, nor do they become brittle because of age or cold weather.
FASTENERS. Several light aircraft designs employ screws, rivets, or single-wire metal clips to secure the fabric to the wing.
Screws holding the old fabric can be removed after spinning a small sharpened tube around each screw or using a razor blade to cut a nd peel away the finishing tape. Care must be taken not to mark or scribe the underlying metal or wood structure. Blind rivets through ribs can be removed by drilling in the center to undercut the head.
Single-wire clips may be removed without damage to the rib by inserting a wide, thin screwdriver blade under the clip and carefully twisti ng. Apply a lifting force at the clip end to pull it up through the hole.
Par 2-14 Page 2-58 (and 2-24) NOTE: It is important that any damage found to ribs, such as oversize rivet or screw holes, and cracks or breaks in the rib cap, should be tagged immediately for easy location and repair later.
When repairs are made to fabric surfaces attached by special mechanical methods, duplicate the original type of fastener. When self-ta pping screws are used for the attachment of fabric to the rib structure, observe the following procedure:
Redrill the holes where necessary due to wear, distortion, etc., and in such cases, use a screw one size larger as a replacement.
Extend the length of the screw beyond the rib capstrip at least two threads.
Install a thin washer, preferably aluminum, under the heads of screws and dope pinkededge tape over each screw head.
FINISHING TAPE.
Finishing tape (surface tape) is installed after the fabric has been pulled taut with th e initial dope application.
This procedure is performed to prevent ripples from forming in fabric panels adjacent to newly applied tapes. Ripple formation is caused by the inability of the combined tape and fabric to tighten uniformly with adjacent fabric when additional dope is applied.
In addition to the tape widths required to be installed over fabric seams specified in paragraph 2-7, finishing tape should be installed as weather protection over all rib lacing, screws, rivets, wire clips, or other devices used to secure fabric. This includes wings, control surface ribs, empennage surface ribs, and fuselage stringers, where so installed by the original aircraft manufacturer. Tape width should be sufficient to bond the fabric a minimum of 3/8 inch on each side of all fabric attachments. Two inch width tape is normally used. Tapes over wing rib lacing should extend a minimu m of 1/2 inch past each end of any reinforcing tapes. Random or widely-spaced attachments may be covered by individual sections of fabric or finishing tape.
Installation of finishing tapes for additional wear resistance is recommended over the edges of all fabricforming structures. This includes fuselage stringers, longerons, leading and trailing edges, false or nose ribs, control surfaces, and empe nnage ribs not already covered and protected by a finishing tape that is required to be on a fabric seam or fabric attached to the structure. Compound surfaces, such as wingtip bow and empennage surfaces, are more conveniently taped using bias cut finishing tape, which easily conforms to the compound contour, rather than notching linear cut tape to fit the surface. Bias cut tape will be reduced to approximately two thirds the original cut width when pulled tight around a wingtip bow and should be considered when selecting the width of tape for the various locations.
Finishing tapes are applied by coating the fabric surface over which the tape will be applied with dope, applying the tape over the wet dope film, then brushing the tape firmly onto the fabric surface. This action will assure a good bond by thoroughly saturating and wetting the finishing tape.
INSPECTION RINGS AND DRAIN GROMMETS.
Inspection Rings. Inspection access is provided adjacent to or over every c ontrol bellcrank, drag-wire junction, cable guide, pulley, wing fitting, or any other component throughout the ai rcraft which will be inspected or serviced annually. They are installed only
Par 2-14 Page 2-59 (and 2-24) on the bottom side of the wi ngs except where installed on the top surface by the original manufacturer.
Cutting the holes may be delayed until needed; however, all covers should be finished in matching colors with any trim lines and stored until needed. Spraying matching colors a year later is expensive and time consuming.
The 3-9/16 inch inside diameter cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) plastic inspection access rings have become popular and bond satisfactorily with Nitrate Dope or Fabric Cement. Any metal inspection hole reinforcements of a particular shape or special design or size, installed by the original manufacturer, should be reinstalled after cleaning.
Tapes or patches over aluminum reinforcements are optional, but recommended in the prop-wash areas on the wings and forward fuselage bottom.
Fabric patches over plastic rings are strongly recommended because plastic is not a stable material, becomes brittle at low temperatures, and fatigues and cracks from prop blast vibration. Plastic rings are often cracked during removal and installation of spring, clipheld covers. Patches with a minimum 1-inch overlap, should be installed with dope.
Drain Grommets. Atmospheric temperature changes cause the humidity in the air to condense on the inside of aircraft surfaces and pool in all low areas. Rainwater enters through openings in the sides and top, and when flying, everywhere throughout the structure. Taxiing on wet runways also splashes water up through any bottom holes. Therefore, provisions must be made to drain water from the lowest point in each fabric panel or plywood component throughout the airframe while in a stored attitude. Drain holes also provide needed ventilation.
Install drain grommets on the under side of all components, and the lowest point in each fabric panel when the aircraft is in stored attitude. Seaplane grommets, which feature a protruding lip to prevent water splashes through the drain hole, are recommended over drain holes subject to water splashing on land planes as well as seaplanes. The appropriate-size holes must be cut through the fabric before installing seaplane grommets. Plastic drain grommets may be doped directly to the fabric surface or mounted on fabric patches then doped to the covering. Installing a small fabric patch over flat grommets to ensure security is optional.
Alternate brass grommets are mounted on fabric patches, then doped to the fabric.
After all coating applications and sanding are completed, open all holes through flat drain grommets by cutting through the fabric with a small-blade knife. Do not attempt to open drain holes by punching with a sharp object because the drain hole will not remain open.
2-15.2-19. [RESERVED.]
Par 2-20 Page 2-60
SECTION 2. APPLICATION OF DOPE
GENERAL. Nitrate dope and butyrate dope are manufactured by treating cellulose, derived from wood pulp or cotton linter with select acids, then dissolving in a blend of solvents and adding plasticizers for flexibility. After a brush or spray application on fabric, the film develops tension and strength as the solvents evaporate. The tension and strength will increase in proportion to the total film thickness. The fabric functions as a film former and carries no load until a crack develops in the dope film. An excessively-thick dope film will develop too much tension and may warp or damage a light airframe.
Viscosity adjustments for brush or spray applications may also vary between brands. When the viscosity adjustment ratio is not provided or is unclear, the product manufacturer should be contacted for detailed instructions. If instructions cannot be obtained or the source of the dope is unknown, the dope should be considered suspect and its use is not advised.
Dope, which has been stored for an extended period of time or under adverse conditi ons, should be suspected of becoming acidic and should be tested before being used on cotton or linen fabric. In some cases, fresh production dope has also been found to have a high acid content and will begin to deteriorate cotton or linen in a period of a few months. The acid content of nitrate or butyrate dope should not exceed 0.06 percent, calculated as acidic acid. An acidity test can be performed by most testing laboratories if high acid content is suspected.
Butyrate dope is superior to nitrate dope in weather exposure tests. However, nitrate dope provides better adhesion to natural fiber than butyrate dope. The adhesion of butyrate dope to natural fibers is adequate;
it is not necessary to use nitrate dope for the first application and butyrate dope for all other applications. The presence of naphtha in nitrate dope, manufactured in accordance with canceled M il Specs formulas, causes nitrate dope to be incompatible with butyrate dope;
therefore, nitrate dope should not be applied over butyrate dope for repairs or refinishing; however, butyrate dope may be applied over nitrate dope.
NOTE: Nitrate or butyrate dope thinners and retarders should not be substituted for each other, nor should automotive coating-type thinners be used.
Clear dope produces the most tension and strength.
Aluminum-pigmented dope w ill weigh slightly more than clear dope and develop less tension and strength for the same film thickness. Pigmented color finishes will produce the least tension and strength due to the higher ratio of plasticizers.
During the coating -buildup procedure, solvents released from each succeeding coat will penetrate and be absorbed into the previous dope film, temporarily releasing the tension and increasing the drying time between coats as the dope film becomes thicker. If elapsed time between coats exceeds several weeks at temperatures above 70 °F, it is recommended that several spray coats of an appropriate dope thinner or dope with retarder and/or re juvenator added be applied to the lightly-sanded, dried dope film to open the surface and provide cohesion fo r the next coat. This will reduce the possibility of surface cracks caused by dissimilar tension between the old and new dope film.
All dope coats through the final finish may be applied with a brush; however, brush
Par 2-20 Page 2-61 marks will be noticeable in th e finish. With increasing environmental concerns, high pressure airless and highvolume low-pressure (HVLP) paint spray equipment is recommended over conventional siphon and pressure pot spraying equipment. High pressure airless and HVLP paint spraying equipment will greatly reduce paint over-spray and fogging. A spray gun, single coat is applied by overlapping each consecutive pass 50 percent of the fan width. A double coat is applied by repeating the coating application in the same direction, or at a 90 ° angle to the first coat (cross coat) before the first coat has flashed off or dried dust free.
For safety and helpful tips for doping, see tables 2-3 and 2-4.
TABLE 2-3. Safety tips for dope/paint.
SAFETY TIPS.
Always ground the aircraft structure while sanding and painting.
Do not use an electric drill as a dope/paint mixer.
Wear leather-soled shoes in the dope/painting area.
Have an adequate, approved ventilation system.
Wear cotton clothes when doping or painting.
Wear an approved face mask or respirator when spraying.
Follow all the manufacturer’s instructions.
TABLE 2-4. Tips for doping.
HELPFUL TIPS FOR DOPING.
Limits for optimum application of dope: relative humidity 20 to 60%; temperature range 65° to 75 °F.
Drying time will vary with temperature, humidity, amount of thinner used, and whether or not retarder was added to the mixture.
Do not recoat until the surface is completely dry and all active solvents have left the dope film.
Spray all coats except the first three or four clear coats, to avoid brush marks.
Over thinning is preferred to under thinning.
Addition of retarder will produce a smoother coat, but drying time between coats will be extended.
To get a clean line for the trim colors, apply a light coat of clear dope directly on the masking tape prior to painting. This will help eliminate the trim color from running under the masking tape.
Remember to always bring the dope to room temperature before using.
Rubbing compound and wax polish may be applied after all solvents have escaped (usually 2 weeks, depending upon the weather).
DOPE APPLICATION PROCEDURE (Natural Fabrics).
Step 1. After the cotton or linen fabric is installed in accordance with the pro cedures specified in paragraphs 2-7 and 2-8, the fabric is wetted with distilled water to remove wrinkles and fold creases, which will show in a gloss finish. Water may be applied by rubbing with a clean sponge or rag, or by using a paint spray gun. Do not use tap water. It may contain minerals which will contaminate the fabric.
As water is absorbed by the fibers, the threads swell, resulting in temporary tauting of the fabric panel. The fabric should be allowed to dry before dope application, otherwise the water in the fibers will interfere with the dope penetration and adhesion.
After the fabric has dried, the first coat of dope is applied, brushing in one direction to set the nap with a clean, non-shedding, 2-to 6-inch wide, semi-soft, long bristle paint brush.
To offset the deteriorating effect of mildew or other fungus on natural fibers, especially in damp climates, it is recommended that a fungicide be added to the first coat of dope.
The preferred fungicide is zinc dimethyldithiocarbamate powder, which should be prepared per the manufacturer’s instructions. If no manufacturer’s instructions are available the zinc powder may be stirred in at a ratio of 4 ounces, to one gallon of unthinned nitrate or butyrate dope, after the powder is wetted to a paste with a 50/50 ratio of dope and thinner.
Pre-mixed fungicidal dope, manufactured in accordance with the formula specified in MIL-D-7850, will have a transparent purple tint to indicate the fungicide additive. Dope manufactured with other colors to
Par 2-21 Page 2-62 identify the manufacturers’ products sold under proprietary trade names may or may not have a fungicidal additive.
The viscosity of the dope should be adjusted to uniformly wet the fabric, indicated by the fabric becoming translucent so that it penetrates through the fabric but does not drip or run down the opposite side. Any dope-runs or pooling on the opposite side will shrink and distort the fabric, and may be visible on the finished surface.
The ideal temperature for application of dope or other coatings is 65 to 75 °F and the humidity should be less than 65 percent. As a general rule, each 10 °F increase or decrease in ambient temperature will increase or decrease drying time by 100 percent. Dope should be allowed to warm to room temperature prior to attempting to adjust the viscosity.
Step 2. Depending upon the quality of the dope and the ratio of thinning, the fabric should start to become taut after the first brushed coat of dope has dried approximately 1 hour at 70 °F. A second, heavier coat is applied by cross brushing at 90 ° to the first coat.
Viscosity should be adjusted only as necessary to brush out a heavy uniform coat. If the fabric is not taut, with all sag removed, after the second coat has dried approximately 2 hours, a third coat may be applied.
Step 3. After the fabric has become semi-taut and stabilized with the initial dope application, and the rib lacing and other fabric attachments are completed as detailed in paragraphs 2-9 through 2-12, it is ready for “dressing out” as described in paragraphs 2-13 and 2-14.
NOTE: “Dressing out” means applying all the finishing tapes, reinforcing patches, inspection access ports, and drain grommets, etc.
Step 4. After the covering is a dressed out, one or more coats of clear dope are brushed over all finishing tapes and fabric reinforcing patches. This will balance the thickness of the dope film with the previously coated areas of the fabric. It is very important that the porosity of the fabric be filled while brushing to avoid pinholes showing in the finish.
Step 5. After drying at least 2 hours at 70 °F, a third heavy coat of clear dope is applied over the entire surface, preferably with a paint spray gun if brush marks are to be avoided. After the third coat of dope has dried at least 2 hours at 70 °F, the fabric should be taut and the dope film should show a gloss, depending upon the dope quality and the ratio of thinner added. If not, a fourth coat of clear dope may be applied, in the same manner as the third coat.
NOTE: Three to four clear coats of dope film showing a uniform gloss combined with the aluminumpigmented coats and finish coats is considered satisfactory for light aircraft to 9 lb. per square foot wing loading. Five to eight clear coats, depending upon the quality of the dope and resulting film thickness, are recommended for higher wing loading aircraft to assure the covering does not stretch and lose tension.
Par 2-21 Page 2-63 Step 6. After the clear coats are found to be satisfactory, two heavy cr oss-coats of aluminumpigmented dope are applied with a spray gun to provide protection from ultraviolet (UV) rays. Tests have shown that UV radiation will deteriorate cotton, linen, and polyester fabric; however, polyester fabric deteriorates at a rate half that of cotton or linen under identical exposure conditions . UV radiation does not deteriorate glass fabric. Aluminum-pigmented dope blocks UV radiation and pr ovides a sanding base. A gauge of ultraviolet protection in the field is to block all visible light from penetrating through the fabric.
Drying time between the two coats should be at least 1 hour at 70 °F.
An option to premixed aluminum dope is to use aluminum-pigment paste. Aluminum paste should be prepared per the manufacturer’s instructions. If no manufacturer’s instructions are available, mix 3 ounces (by weight), of 325-mesh aluminum-pigment paste, to 1 gallon of un-thinned, clear dope. The aluminum paste should first be mixed to a cream consistency with a 50/50 ratio of dope and thinner before mixing into the un-thinned clear dope. A higher ratio of aluminumpigment added to the dope may cause a loss of inner-coat, finish adhesion, and peeling especially when high tack tape is used to mask for the trim colors and registration numbers.
The viscosity of the mixed aluminumpigmented dope should be adjusted for satisfactory spray gun application.
Step 7. After two coats of aluminum-pigmented dope have dried at least 4 hours at 70 °F, the surface may be wet sanded with # 280 grit (or finer) waterproof sandpaper. The aluminum-pigmented dope should be sanded only to develop a smooth surface, not sanded completely off to the clear dope undercoats. Do not sand over screwheads, rib lacing, or any structural sharp edges that will quickly cut through fabric and require patching.
Additional coats of aluminum-pigmented dope may be applied and sanded, depending on the final finish desired. The last coat should not be sanded to assure ultraviolet protection along the edges of the finishing tapes and reinforcing patches is maintained.
Step 8. Three coats of pigmented color finish are applied with a paint spray gun, allowing adequate drying time between coats. The color finish may be wet sanded between coats, if desired, with a fine grit waterproof sandpaper. Adding blush retarder to the final dope finish will improve the gloss. After drying several weeks, a rubbing compound may be used to buff the finish and increase the gloss. A periodic application of a wax polish will help protect the finish from the weather and environmental pollution.
NOTE: Drain holes should be opened soon after all finishing is complete to insure drainage and to aid ventilation of the structure.
Dark colors convert more heat than light colors when exposed to the sun. High temperatures dry out wood structures and deteriorate organic materials in an aircraft structure. Preferably the lighter color shades are applied first and then overcoated with darker trim and registration number colors.
Only high-quality, solvent-resistant crepe paper or polypropylene masking tape should be used to avoid finish bleed under the tape edge. Newspaper printing ink may transfer to a fresh finish and should not be used for masking paper. Plastic sheeting should not be used as a dust cover on a fresh finish due to possible bonding and damage.
COVERING OVER PLYWOOD.
Exposed, stressed plywood surfaces, such as wings, must be protected from weather
Par 2-22 Page 2-64 deterioration with fabric at least equal to that used by the original manufacturer. If the quality is not known, intermediate-grade fabric, meeting TSO-C14b specification, is acceptable. Fabric may be installed in sections with a 1/2 inch edge overlap without covering the overlap with finishing tape. Fabric may also be installed with the edges butted together, and the seam covered with a minimum 1-inch wide finishing tape.
The seams may be oriented in any direction, in reference to the line of flight. However, overlapped seams, not covered with a finishing tape, should be oriented rearward. Fabric should be wrapped completely around a wing’s l eading and trailing edges and other components, where possible, to provide fabric-to-fabric continuity around all edges to avoid a poorly-bonded fabric edge from peeling from the plywood surface causing serious aerodynamic consequences.
After the plywood surface is prepared, and the two pre-coats of clear dope have dried as recommended in paragraph 2-6 g, the fabric is pulled snug and bonded with clear dope around the perimeter of the fabric section. The fabric is then wetted with distilled water to remove fold creases, in the same manner described for fabric panel areas. After the water has evaporated, a heavy coat of low-viscosity clear dope is brushed firmly through the fabric to soften the underlying dope precoat, insuring a good bond. Brushing techniques should be accomplished by moving the brush from one side across to the opposite side to remove all air bubbles and thoroughly saturate the fabric. This is indicated by the plywood grain being easily visible through the translucent fabric. Except for very small imperfections or small dents in the plywood surface, voids are not permissible between the fabric and plywood surfaces.
Voids may allow the fabric to balloon from the plywood surface, creating adverse handling characteristics.
After the first dope coat has dried at least 1 hour at 70 °F, a second heavy coat of clear dope is applied by brush to fill the fabric weave and prevent pinholes. The installation of finish tape around the perimeter of the plywood surfaces, leading edges, and other wear points, is optional but recommended for wear and chafe protection. The application of aluminum-pigmented dope coating, sanding, and fini sh coats will be the same as that specified for fabric panel areas. Reinforcement grommets are not required on drain holes through plywood surfaces.
COATING APPLICATION DEFECTS.
Blushing. The appearance of li ght shaded dull areas on the surface as dope dries is th e result of moisture in the atmosphere condensing on a surface due to the cooling effect of the fast-evaporating components of dope thinner escaping from the coating. Blushing can occur at any temperature when the humidity is above 65 percent. There are several ways to remedy this problem. The drying time may be slowed by adding up to 1 quart of blush retarder to 1 gallon of dope or by increasing the temperature of the dope room and eliminating any cooling draft from blowing across the surface. Blushed surfaces may be reworked by spraying several, closely-timed coats of a 50/50 blend of blush retarder and dope thinner to soften and return the dope surface to the original liqui d state. Blush retarder, mixed with dope, may delay the full drying time by several days, but will eventually escape from the dope film if the room temperature is maintained an average of 70 °F.
Pinholes. Voids between the fabric threads that are not filled with the first coats of dope are called pinholes.
They may be caused by fabric contamination, such as oil or finger
Par 2-22 Page 2-65 prints, but are usually the result of improper dope application. Pinholes are usually found in a second layer of fabric such as finishing tapes and reinforcing patches or over underlying, non-porous structures; such as leading edges, turtle decks, and plywood surfaces.
Any non-porous structure under fabric will act as a backstop and will resist comp lete dope penetration into the fabric. Microscopic cavities between the backstop and fabric collect escaping solvent vapors during the drying process and balloon up through the surface leaving pinholes, or become pinholes when the top of the balloon is sanded. Moisture, in the fabric or on the backstop surface, also inte rferes with complete dope penetration, resulting in pinholes. The remedy for pinholes, at any stage before the final finish coat, is to add blush retarder to low viscosity dope and carefully brush over the affected surfaces to penetrate into and fill the pinholes. Discontinue brushing after five or six strokes to avoid leaving brush marks.
Orange Peel. A rough spray gun-applied finish, similar to the texture of an orange peel, may be caused by one or more of the following conditions:
Viscosity of material being sprayed is too high.
Air temperature is too high.
Spraying in direct sunlight, onto a hot surface or in a drafty/windy condition, which causes a fast solvent evaporation.
Spray gun, tip, cap, and/or needle are not properly matched for the type material being sprayed.
Volume of air available from the compressor not sufficient for spray gun.
Wrong thinner used and drying too fast.
Spray gun not properly adjusted. The spray gun should be adjusted to a uniform spray pattern with the material atomized to deposit fine, wet particles that merge and form a smooth film.
Blisters. One or more of the following conditions my cause blisters:
Freshly coated surface placed in hot sunlight or high temperature area to accelerate drying time, causing the vapor from rapidly evaporating solvents to be trapped.
Excessive high air pressure used to spray heavy coats which “blasts” air bubbles into the coating.
Water or oil in air supply.
Runs, Sags, and Curtains. These defects may be caused by one or more of the following conditions:
Viscosity of material being sprayed is too low.
Coats applied too heavily.
Insufficient drying time between coats.
Spray gun held too close to work surface.
Improperly adjusted spray gun.
Spray Gun Laps and Streaks. These defects may be caused by one or more of the following conditions:
Par 2-23 Page 2-66 (and 2-32) Spray gun not properly adjusted to spray a wet, smooth surface.
Overspray on a partially-dried surface.
Spray pattern not sufficiently overlapped on each pass.
Viscosity of material being sprayed is too high.
Metallic finishes sprayed too heavily allowing metallic pigments to move or flow after deposit, causing a marbled appearance.
2-24.2-29. [RESERVED.]
Par 2-30 Page 2-67
SECTION 3. INSPECTION AND TESTING
GENERAL. All components of the covering should be inspected for general condition.
Loose finishing tape and reinforcing patches;
chafing under fairings; brittle, cracking, peeling, or deteriorated coatings; fabric tears and rock damage; broken or missing rib lacing;
and rodent nests are unacceptable. The entire fabric covering should be uniformly taut with no loose or wrinkled areas, or excess tension which can warp and damage the airframe.
Excess Tension. There are no methods or specifications for measuri ng acceptable fabric tension other than observation. Excess tension may pull and warp critical components, such as: longerons; wing ribs;
and trailing edges out of position, weakening the structure.
Excess tension with cotton, linen, and glass fiber fabric covering is usually caused by excessive dope film on a new covering, or continuous shrinking of an originally satisfactory dope film as the plasticizers migrate from the dope with age. Heat from sun exposure accelerates plasticizer migration.
Excess tension with polyester fabric, coated with dope, is usually caused by the combined tension of the heat tautened polyester fabric and continuous shrinking of the dope film as the plasticizers migrate from the dope with age.
Loose Fabric. Fabric that flutters or ripples in the propeller slipstream, balloons, or is depressed excessively in flight from the static position, is unacceptable.
Loose or wrinkled cotton, linen, and glass fabric covering may be caused by inadequate dope film; poor quality dope; fabric installed with excess slack; or by a bent, broken, or warped structure.
Loose or wrinkled polyester fabric covering, finished with coatings other than dope, may be caused by inadequate or excessive heat application; excess slack when the fabric was installed; or bent or warped structure.
Polyester fabric which does not meet aircraft quality specifications will very likely become loose after a short period of time.
Glass fabric covering should be tested with a large suction cup for rib lacing cord failure and reinforcing tape failure caused by chafing on all wing ribs and other structural attachments throughout the airframe. Particular attention should be given to the area within the propeller slipstream. If failure is indicated by the covering lifting from the static position, the rib lacing cord and reinforcing tape must be reinstalled with double the number of original laces.
NOTE: Temporary wrinkles will develop in any fabric coated and finished with dope, when moisture from rain, heavy fog, or dew is absorbed into a poor-quality dope film, causing the film to expand.
Temporary wrinkles may also develop with any type of thick coatings, on any type of fabric, when an aircraft is moved from a cold storage area to a warm hangar or parked in the warming sunshine, causing rapid thermal expansion of the coating.
Coating Cracks. Fabric exposed through cracks in the coating may be initially tested for deterioration by pressing firmly with a thumb to check the fabric’s strength. Natural fibers deteriorate by exposure to ultraviolet radiation, mildew, fungus from moisture, high acid-content rain, dew, fog, pollution, and age.
Polyester filaments will deteriorate by exposure to UV radiation.
Par 2-32 Page 2-68 Glass fabric will not deteriorate from UV exposure, but will be deteriorated by acid rain, dew fallout, and chaffing if loose in the prop blast area.
Cotton, linen, and glass fabric coverings are dependent solely on the strength and tautening characteristics of the dope film to carry the airloads. Dope coatings on heattautened polyester fabric will also absorb all the airloads because the elongation of polyester filaments are considerably higher than the dope film. Polyester fabric that is coated with materials other than dope, is dependent solely on the heat tautening and low-elongation characteristics of the polyester filaments to develop tension and transmit the airloads to the airframe without excess distortion from a static position.
Cracks in coatings will allow any type of exposed fabric to deteriorate. Cracks should be closed by sealing or removing the coatings in the immediate area and replace with new coatings, or recover the component.
FABRIC IDENTIFICATION.
Cotton Fabric meeting TSO-C15 or TSO-C14 can be identified by an off-white color and thread count of 80 to 94 for TSO-C14b and 80 to 84 for TSO-C15d in both directions.
Aircraft linen conforming to British specification 7F1 may be identified by a slightly darker shade than cotton fabric and irregular thread spacing. The average thread count will be about the same as Grade A fabric (TSO-C15d). The non-uniformity of the linen thread size is also noticeable, with one thread half the size of the adjacent thread. When viewed under a magnifying glass, the ends of the cotton and linen fiber nap may be seen on the backside. The na p is also seen when the coating is removed from the fr ont or outside surface. A light-purple color showing on the back side of cotton or linen fabric indicates a fungicide was present in the dope to resist deterioration by fungus and mildew.
Polyester fabric conforming to TSO-C14b or TSO-C15d is whiter in color than cotton or linen. The fabric styles adapted for use as aircraft covering have a variety of thread counts, up to ninety-four (94), depending on the manufacturing source, weight, and breaking strength. Polyester is a monofilament and will not have any nap or filament ends showing.
Glass fabric is manufactured white in color, and one source is precoated with a blue-tinted dope as a primer and to reduce weave distortion during handling. Thread count will be approximately 36 threads per inch. Glass fabrics are monofilament and will not have any nap or filament ends showing unless they are inadvertently broken.
When a small fabric sample can be removed from the aircraft and all the coatings removed, a burn test will readily distinguish between natural fabric, polyester, and glass fabric. Cotton and linen will burn to a dry ash, polyester filaments will melt to a liquid and continue burning to a charred ash, and glass filaments, which do not support combustion, will become incandescent over a flame.
COATING IDENTIFICATION.
Nitrate or butyrate dope must be used to develop tension on cotton, linen, and glass fabrics. When a small sample can be removed, burn tests will distinguish nitrate dope-coated fabric from butyrate dope-coated fabric by its immediat e ignition and accelerated combustion. Butyrate dope will burn at less than one-half the rate of nitrate dope. Coating types other than nitrate or butyrate dope may have been used as a finish over dope on cotton, linen, and glass fiber fabric coverings.